The disentangled bank: How loss of habitat fragments and disassembles ecological networks

American Journal of Botany

Volumn 98, Issue 3, 2011, Pages 503-516

  Gonzalez, Andrew ^a   Rayfield, Bronwyn ^a   Lindo, Zoë ^a  

^a MCGILL UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

Biodiversity extinction graph theory habitat fragmentation networks spatial ecology

Indexed keywords

ANTAGONISM; BIODIVERSITY; ECOSYSTEM FUNCTION; ECOSYSTEM SERVICE; EXTINCTION RISK; HABITAT CONSERVATION; HABITAT FRAGMENTATION; MUTUALISM; TOPOLOGY;

ARTICLE; BIOLOGICAL MODEL; ECOSYSTEM; ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION; FOOD CHAIN;

CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES; ECOSYSTEM; FOOD CHAIN; MODELS, BIOLOGICAL;

EID: 79952762250     PISSN: 00029122     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3732/ajb.1000424     Document Type: Article

References (181)

1. Abrams, P. A. 2007. Habitat choicn pator-prey systems: Spatial instability due tnteracting adaptive movements. American Naturalist 169:581-594.
2. Aizen, M. A., C. L. Morales, J. M. Morales. 2008. Invasive mutualistative pollination webs. PLoS Biology 6:e31.
3. Allea, S., A. Bodini, and M. Pascual. 2009. Functional links and robustnesn f webs. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Sety, B, Biological Sciences 364:1701-1709.
4. Amarasekare, P. 2004. Spatial dynamics of mutualistic interactions. Journal of Animal Ecology 73:128-142.
5. Amarasekare, P. 2008. Spatial dynamics of f webs. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 39:479-500.
6. Anders, E., and O. Bodin. 2009. Practical t foandscape planning? An empirical investigation oetwork ba models of habitat fragmentation. Ecography 32:123-132.
7. Andrén, H. 1994. Ects of habitat fragmentation on birds and mammaln landscapes with dit proportions of suitable habitat: A review. Oikos 71:355-366.
8. Arim, M., and F. M. Jaksic. 2005. Puctivity and f web structure: Assation betw puctivity and link richness among top pators. Journal of Animal Ecology 74:31-40.
9. Ashworth, L., R. Aguilar, L. Galetto, and M. A. Aizen. 2004. Why do pollination gralist and spalist plant spes show similar repuctive suptibility to habitat fragmentation? Journal of Ecology 92:717-719.
10. Atmar, W., and B. Patter. 1993. The measure of order and disorden thistribution of spen fragmented habitat. Oecologia 96:373-382.
11. Bascompte, J. 2007. Networkn ecology. Basic and Applied Ecology 8:485-490.
12. Bascompte, J. 2009. Ditangling the web oife. Science 325:416-419.
13. Bascompte, J., P. Jordano, C. J. Melián, and J. M. Ole. 2003. Thested assembly of plant-animal mutualistic networks. Pings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 100:9383-9387.
14. Bascompte, J., P. Jordano, and J. M. Ole. 2006. Asymmetric coevolutionary networks facilitate biodiversity maintenance. Science 312:431-433.
15. Bascompte, J., and R. V. Solé. 1996. Habitat fragmentation and extinction thresholdn spatially explicit models. Journal of Animal Ecology 65:465-473.
16. Bascompte, J., and D. B. Stour. 2009. The assembly and disassembly ocological networks. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Sety, B, Biological Sciences 364:1781-1787.
17. Bell, J. R., R. A. King, D. A. Bohan, and W. O. C. Sym. 2010. Spatial co-occutworks pict thing histos of polyphagous arthropod pators at ld scales. Ecography 33:64-72.
18. Bellisario, B., F. Cerli, and G. Natti. 2010. Spatial network structure and robustness oetritus-ba communitien a patchy enviment. Ecological Research 25:813-821.
19. Bodin, O., M. Tengo, A. Norman, J. Lundberg, and T. Elmqvist. 2006. The value of small size: Loss of forest patches and ecological thresholdn southern Madagascar. Ecological Applications 16:440-451.
20. Briggs, C. J., and M. F. Hoopes. 2004. Stabilizing ectn spatial parasit-host and pator-prey models: A review. Theoretical Population Biology 65:299-315.
21. Brooks, C. P. 2006. Quantifying population substructure: Exting the graph-theoretic approach. Ecology 87:864-872.
22. Brooks, C. P., A. Antonovics, and T. Keitt. 2008. Spatial and temporal heterogity explain diseasynamicn a spatially explicit network model. American Naturalist 172:149-159.
23. Brose, U., A. Ostling, K. Harri, and N. D. Martinez. 2004. Unid spatial scaling of spes and their trophic interactions. Nature 428:167-171.
24. Brudvig, L. A., E. I. Damschen, J. J. Tewksbury, N. M. Haddad, and D. J. Levey. 2009. Landscape cectivity promotes plant biodiversity spilloventon-target habitats. Pings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 106:9328-9332.
25. Bunn, A. G., D. L. Urban, and T. H. Keitt. 2000. Landscape cectivity: A conservation application of graph theory. Journal of Envimental Management 59:265-278.
26. Butchart, S. H. M., M. Walpole, B. len, A. van Stn, J. P. W. Scharlemann, R. E. A. Alm, J. E. M. Baillit al 2010. Global biodiversity: Indicators of rnt dines. Science 328:1164-1168.
27. Cagnolo, L., G. Valladares, A. Salvo, M. Cabido, and M. Zak. 2009. Habitat fragmentation and speoss across th interacting trophic levels: Ects oife-history and f-web traits. Servation Biology 23:1167-1175.
28. Calabrese, J. M., and W. F. Fagan. 2004. A compari-shopper's guide to cectivity metrics. Ftiern Ecology and the Enviment 2:529-536.
29. Campbell, C., S. Yang, R. Albert, and K. Shea. 2011. A network model for plant-pollinator community assembly. Pings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 108:197-202.
30. Chisholm, C., Z. Lindo, and A. Gonzalez.In press. Metacommunity diversity deps on network cectivity and arrangement in heterogouandscapes. Ecography [DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0587.2010.06588.x].
31. Cohen, J. E., and C. M. Newman. 1991. Community area and f-chain length: Theoretical pictions. American Naturalist 138:1542-1554.
32. Crooks, K. R., and M. E. Soule. 1999. Mesopatoase and avifaunal extincti a fragmented system. Nature 400:563-566.
33. Crowley, P. L., and W. W. Murdoch. 1986. Pator-mediated coexistence: An equilibrium interpretation. Journal of Theoretical Biology 80:129-144.
34. Cumming, G. S., O. Bodin, H. Ernst, and T. Elmqvist. 2010. Network analy conservation biogeography: Challenges and opportunities. Diversity & Distributions 16:414-425.
35. Dale, M. R. T., and M.-J. Fortin. 2010. From graphs to spatial graphs. Annual Review of Ecology Evolution and Systematics 41:21-38.
36. Darling, E. S., and I. M. Côté. 2008. Quantifying thvidence focological synergies. Ecology Letters 11:1278-1286.
37. Dnski, D. M., and R. D. Holt. 2000. A survey and overview of habitat fragmentation experiments. Servation Biology 14:342-355.
38. Delibes, M., P. Gaona, and P. Ferreras. 2001. Ects of an attractive k leading into maladaptive habitat ection. American Naturalist 158:277-285.
39. Dirzo, R., and P. H. Raven. 2003. Global state of biodiversity and loss. Annual Review of Enviment and Resous 28:137-167.
40. Dob, A., D. Lodge, J. Alder, G. S. Cumming, J. Keymer, J. McGlade, H. Mey et al 2006. Habitat loss, trophic collapse, and thine ocosystem services. Ecology 87:1915-1924.
41. Duffy, J. E. 2003. Biodiversity loss, trophic skew and ecosystem functing. Ecology Letters 6:680-687.
42. Dyer, L. A., T. R. Walla, H. F. Gney, J. O. Stireman III, and R. F. Hazen 2010. Diversity onteractions: A metric for studies of biodiversity. Biotropica 42:281-289.
43. Etter, A., C. McAlpine, S. Phinn, D. Pullar, and H. Posgham 2006. Characterizing a tropical deforestation wave: A dynamic spatial analysis of a deforestation hotspot in the ombian Amazon. Global Change Biology 12:1409-1420.
44. Ewers, R. M., and R. K. Didham. 2006. Tinuous response functions for quantifying the stgth odgcts. Journal of Applied Ecology 43:527-536.
45. Fagan, W. F., and J. M. Calabrese. 2006. Quantifying cectivity: Balancing metric performance with data requirements. In K. R. Crooks, and M. Sanjayan [eds.], Nectivity conservation, 297-317. Cambge University Press, Cambge, UK.
46. Fahrig, L. 2003. Ects of habitat fragmentation on biodiversity. Annual Review of Ecology Evolution and Systematics 34:487-515.
47. Fall, A., M.-J. Fortin, M. Manseau, and D. O'Bn. 2007. Spatial graphs: Pciples and applications for habitat cectivity. Ecosystems 10:448-461.
48. Forman, R. T. T. 1995. Land mosaics: Thcology oandscapes and regions. Cambge University Press, Cambge, UK.
49. Fortuna, M. A., and J. Bascompte. 2006. Habitat loss and the structure of plant-animal mutualistic networks. Ecology Letters 9:281-286.
50. Franklin, A. B., B. R. N, and T. L. George. 2002. What is habitat fragmentation? Studien Avian Biology 25:20-29.
51. Giam, X., C. J. A. Bradshaw, H. T. W. Tan, and N. S. Sodhi. 2010. Future habitat loss and the conservation of plant biodiversity. Biological servation 143:1594-1602.
52. Gilbert, F., A. Gonzalez, and I. Evans-Freke. 1998. Corors maintain spes richnesn the fragmented landscapes of a miccosystem. Pings of the Royal Sety of Lon, B, Biological Sciences 265:577-582
53. Gilroy, J. J., and W. J. Sutherland. 2007. Bey ecological traps: Peptual errors and undervalued resous. Tdn Ecology & Evolution 22:351-356.
54. Gonzalez, A. 2000. Community axation in fragmented landscapes: The ation betw spes richness, area and age. Ecology Letters 3:441-448.
55. Gonzalez, A., and E. J. Chaneton. 2002. Heterotroph spextinction, abundance and biomasynamicn an experimentally fragmented miccosystem. Journal of Animal Ecology 71:594-602.
56. Gouhier, T. C., F. Guichard, and A. Gonzalez. 2010. Synchy and stability of f w metacommunities. American Naturalist 175:E16-E34.
57. Gross, T., and B. Blasius. 2008. Adaptive coevolutionary networks: A review. Journal of the Royal Sety, Interface 5:259-271.
58. Groves, C. R., D. B. Jen, L. L. Valutis, K. H. ford, M. L. Shar, J. M. Scott, J. V. Baumgartnet, et-al 2002. Planning for biodiversity conservation: Putting conservation encnto practice. BioScience 52:499-512.
59. Guichard, F. 2005. Interaction stgth and extinction risk in a metacommunity. Pings of the Royal Sety of Lon, B, Biological Sciences 272:1571-1576.
60. Guilhaumon, F., O. Gimz, K. J. Gaston, and D. Mouillot 2008. Taxonomic and regional uncertainty in spes-area ationships and thdentification of richness hotspots. Pings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 105:15458-15463.
61. Halpin, P. N., and A. G. Bunn. 2000. Ug GIS to compute a least-cost distance matrix: A compari of terrestrial and macological applications. In Pings of the 20th annual ESRI User f, 1-19, 2000, San Diego, Califoa, USA. Esri, lands, Califoa, US.
62. Hanski, I., and O. Ovaskainen. 2002. Extinction debt at extinction threshold. servation Biology 16:666-673.
63. Hasl, M. P., H. N. C. Godfray, and H. N. nins. 1993. Ects of global change on thynamics onsect host-parasit interactions. In P. Kava, and J. Kingver [eds.], Biotic interactions and global change, 402-423. Sinauer, Sunderland, Massachusetts, USA.
64. Hastings, A. 1980. Disturbance, coexistence, history, and competition for space. Theoretical Population Biology 18:363-373.
65. Helm, A., I. Hanski, and M. Pärtel. 2006. Slow response of plant spes richness to habitat loss and fragmentation. Ecology Letters 9:72-77.
66. He, K., K. F. Davies, M. Kleyer, C. Margules, and J. Settele. 2004. Pictors of spes sitivity to fragmentation. Biodiversity and servation 13:207-251.
67. Holt, R. D. 2002. F w space: On thnterplay oynamic instability and spatial prsses. Ecological Research 17:261-273.
68. Holt, R. D., and M. F. Hoopes. 2005. F web dynamicn a metacommunity context: Modules and bey. In M. Holyoak, and M. A. Leibold [eds.], Metacommunities: Spatial dynamics and ecological communities, 68-93. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
69. Holt, R. D., J. H. Lawton, G. A. Polis, and N. D. Martinez. 1999. Trophic rank and the spes-area ationship. Ecology 80:1495-1504.
70. Holyoak, M. 2000. Habitat patch arrangement and metapopulation persistence of pators and prey. American Naturalist 156:378-389.
71. Holyoak, M., M. A. Leibold, and R. D. Holt. 2005. Metacommunities: Spatial dynamics and ecological communities. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
72. Hoyle, M., and F. Gilbert. 2004. Spes richness of mosandscapes unacted by short-term fragmentation. Oikos 105:359-367.
73. Huxel, G. R., and A. Hastings. 1999. Habitat loss, fragmentation, and restoration. Restoration Ecology 7:309-315.
74. Ings, T. C., J. M. Montoya, J. Bascompte, N. Bluthgen, L. Brown, C. F. Dormann, F. Edwardt al 2009. Ecological networks-Bey f webs. Journal of Animal Ecology 78:253-269.
75. Jetz, W., D. S. Wilcove, and A. P. Dob. 2007. Picted impacts of climate change and land-use change on the global biodiversity of birds. PLoS Biology 5:e157.
76. Jordán, F. 2001. Adding function to structure-Comments on Palmaa landscape cectivity. Community Ecology 2:133-135.
77. Keitt, T. H. 2009. Habitat conversion, extinction thresholds, and pollination servicen agcosystems. Ecological Applications 19:1561-1573.
78. Keitt, T. H., D. L. Urban, and B. T. Milne. 1997. Detecting critical scalen fragmented landscapes [ine]. Ecology and Sety 1: http://www.consecol.org/vol1/iss1/art4/.
79. Kininmonth, S. J., G. De'ath, and H. P. Posgham. 2010. Graph theoretic topology of the Great but small Barr f world. Theoretical Ecology 3:75-88.
80. Komn, A., R. Penttilä, M. Lindg, and I. Hanski. 2000. Forest fragmentation truncates a f chain ba on an old-growth forest bracket fungus. Oikos 90:119-126.
81. Krause, A. E., K. A. Frank, D. M. Ma, R. E. Ulanowicz, and W. W. Taylor. 2003. Compartments revealed in f-web structure. Nature 426:282-285.
82. Krishna, A., P. R. Guimaraes, P. Jordano, and J. Bascompte. 2008. A neutral-niche theory oestednesn mutualistic networks. Oikos 117:1609-1618.
83. Larty, K. D., and J. A. Dunne. 2010. Stochastic ecological network occupancy (SENO) models: A new t for modeling ecological networks across spatial scales. Theoretical Ecology 3:123-135.
84. Lawton, J. H., and R. M. May. 1995. Extinction rates. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
85. Levins, R. 1969. Somemographic and gtic consequences onvimental heterogity for biological cont. Bulletin of the Entomological Sety of America 15:237-240.
86. Levins, R., and D. Culver. 1971. Regional coexistence of spes and competition betw rare spes. Pings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 68:1246-1248.
87. Lookingbill, T. R., R. H. Gardner, J. R. Ferrari, and C. E. Keller. 2010. Combining a dispersal model with network theory to assess habitat cectivity. Ecological Applications 20:427-441.
88. MacArthur, R. H., and E. O. Wil. 1967. The theory osland biogeography. Pceton University Press, Pceton, New Jersey, USA.
89. Marcot, B. G., and P. Z. Chinn. 1982. Use of graph theory measures for assesg diversity of wildlife habitat. In R. Lamber [ed.], Mathematical models owable resous, Pings of the First Pacific Coast f on Mathematical Models owable Resous. Humboldt State University, Arcata, Califoa, USA
90. May, R. M. 2006. Network structure and the biology of populations. Tdn Ecology & Evolution 21:394-399.
91. May, R. M., and M. A. Nowak. 1994. Supction, metapopulation dynamics and thvolution oiversity. Journal of Theoretical Biology 170:95-114.
92. McCann, K. S. 2007. Protecting biostructure. Nature 446:29.
93. McCann, K. S., J. B. Rasmus, and J. Umbanhowar. 2005. Thynamics of spatially coupled f webs. Ecology Letters 8:513-523.
94. McRae, B. H., B. G. Dick, T. H. Keitt, and V. B. Shah. 2008. Ug circuit theory to model cectivity in ecology, evolution, and conservation. Ecology 89:2712-2724.
95. Melián, C. J., and J. Bascompte. 2002a. Complex networks: Two ways to be robust? Ecology Letters 5:705-708.
96. Melián, C. J., and J. Bascompte. 2002b. F web structure and habitat loss. Ecology Letters 5:37-46.
97. Memmott, J., P. G. Craze, N. M. Waser, and M. V. Price. 2007. Global warming and thisruption of plant-pollinatonteractions. Ecology Letters 10:710-717.
98. Mikkel, G. M. 1993. How do f webs fall apart-A study of changen trophic structurug axation on habitat fragments. Oikos 67:539-547.
99. Minor, E. S., S. M. Tes, K. A. M. Engelhardt, and T. R. Lookingbill. 2009. Th oandscape cectivity in assembling exotic plant communities: A network analysis. Ecology 90:1802-1809.
100. Minor, E. S., and D. L. Urban. 2008. A graph-theory frarmework fovaluating landscape cectivity and conservation planning. Servation Biology 22:297-307.
101. Montoya, D. 2008. Habitat loss, dispersal, and the probability oxtinction of t spes. Communicative & Integrative Biology 1:146-147.
102. Morris, R. J. 2010. Anthropogc impacts on tropical forest biodiversity: A network structure and ecosystem functing perspective. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Sety, B, Biological Sciences 365:3709-3718.
103. Naeem, S., D. E. Bunker, A. Hector, M. Loreau, and C. Pergs. 2009. Biodiversity, ecosystem functing, and human wellbg: An ecological and economic perspective. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
104. Newman, M., A.-L. Barabasi, and D. Watts. 2006. The structure and dynamics oetworks. Pceton University Press, Pceton, New Jersey, USA.
105. Ney-Nifle, M., and M. Mangel. 2000. Habitat loss and changen the spes-area ationship. Servation Biology 14:893-898.
106. O'Bn, D., M. Manseau, A. Fall, and M.-J. Fortin. 2006. Testing thmportance of spatial configuration of winter habitat for wland caribou: An application of graph theory. Biological servation 130:70-83.
107. Ole, J. M., J. Bascompte, Y. L. Dupont, and P. Jordano. 2007. The modularity of pollination networks. Pings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 104:19891-19896.
108. Olff, H., and M. E. Ritchie. 2002. Fragmented nature: sequences for biodiversity. Landscape and Urban Planning 58:83-92.
109. Opdam, P., E. Stgröver, and S. van Rj. 2006. Ecological networks: A spatial concept for multi-actor planning of sustainablandscapes. Landscape and Urban Planning 75:322-332.
110. Opdam, P., and D. Wascher. 2004. Climate change meets habitat fragmentation: Linking landscape and biogeographical scalevel in research and conservation. Biological servation 117:285-297.
111. Pascual, M., and F. Guichard. 2005. Criticality and disturbancn spatial ecological systems. Tdn Ecology & Evolution 20:88-95.
112. Pascual-Hortal, L., and S. Saura. 2006. Compari and development oew graph-ba landscape cectivity indices: Towards the priorization of habitat patches and corors for conservation. Landscape Ecology 21:959-967.
113. Pera, H. M., and G. C. Daily. 2006. Modeling biodiversity dynamicn countryandscapes. Ecology 87:1877-1885.
114. Petanidou, T., A. S. Kallimanis, J. Tzanopoulos, S. P. Sgardelis, and J. D. Pantis. 2008. Long-term observation of a pollination network: Fluctuation in spes and interactions, ativnvariance oetwork structure and implications fostimates of spalization. Ecology Letters 11:564-575.
115. Petchey, O. L., A. P. Beckerman, J. O. de, and P. H. War. 2008. Size, foraging, and f web structure. Pings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 105:4191-4196.
116. Petchey, O. L., P. T. McPhear, T. M. Casey, and P. J. Mo. 1999. Envimental warming alters f-web structure and ecosystem function. Nature 402:69-72.
117. Pillai, P., M. Loreau, and A. Gonzalez. 2010. A patch-dynamic framework for f web metacommunities. Theoretical Ecology 3:223-237.
118. Pimm, S. L., and J. H. Lawton. 1980. Are f wvided into compartments? Journal of Animal Ecology 49:879-898.[CrossRef]
119. Pimm, S. L., and P. H. Raven. 2000. Biodiversity: Extinction by numbers. Nature 403:843-845.
120. Pimm, S. L., G. J. Rusl, J. L. Gittleman, and T. M. Brooks. 1995. The future of biodiversity. Science 269:347-350.
121. Pinto, N., and T. Keitt. 2009. Bey theast-cost path: Evaluating coror undancy ug a graph-theoretic approach. Landscape Ecology 24:253-266.
122. Polis, G. A., M. E. Power, and G. R. Huxel. 2004. F webs at thandscapevel. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
123. Post, D. M., M. E. ners, and D. S. Goldberg. 2000a. Prey p by a top pator and the stability ked f chains. Ecology 81:8-14.
124. Post, D. M., M. L. Pace, and N. G. Hairston. 2000b. Ecosystem sizetermines f-chain length in lakes. Nature 405:1047-1049.
125. Rantalainen, M. L., H. Fritze, J. Haimi, T. Panen, and H. Setälä. 2005. Spes richness and f web structure o decomposer community as acted by the size of habitat fragment and habitat corors. Global Change Biology 11:1614-1627.
126. Rayld, B., M.-J. Fortin, and A. Fall. 2010. The sitivity oeast-cost habitat graphs to ative cost surface values. Landscape Ecology 25:519-532.
127. Rayld, B., M.-J. Fortin, and A. Fall In press. Nectivity for conservation: A framework to classify network measures. Ecology doi: 10.1890/09-2190.1
128. Rayld, B., A. Manen, and M.-J. Fortin. 2009. Incorporating consumer-resou spatial interacti reservesign. Ecological Modelling 220:725-733.
129. Ricotta, C., A. Stani, G. Avena, and C. Blasi. 2000. Quantifying thetwork cectivity oandscape mosaics: A graph-theoretical approach. Community Ecology 1:89-94.
130. Ripple, W. J., T. P. Rey, and R. L. Beschta. 2009. Large pators, deer, and trophic cascaden boreal and temperatcosystems. In J. Terborgh, and J. Estes [eds.], Trophic cascades: Pators, prey, and the changing dynamics oature, 141-161. Island Press, Washington, D.C., USA.
131. Ritters, K., J. Wicksham, O. Nl, B. R. Js, and E. Smith. 2000. Global scale patterns of forest fragmentation. servation Ecology 4:3.
132. Rrt, B. A., and R. L. Hutto. 2006. A framework for understanding ecological traps and an evaluation oxisting evidence. Ecology 87:1075-1085.
133. Rey, N., K. S. McCann, and J. C. Moore. 2008. A landscape theory for f web architecture. Ecology Letters 11:867-881.
134. Rey, T. P., and D. M. Waller. 2003. Direct and indirect ects of white-tailed d forest ecosystems. Forest Ecology and Management 181:165-176.
135. Saavedra, S., F. d-Tsochas, and B. Uzzi. 2009. A simple model of bipartite cooperation focological and organizational networks. Nature 457:463-466.
136. Sabatino, M., N. Maceira, and M. A. Aizen. 2010. Direct ects of habitat area on interaction diversity in pollination webs. Ecological Applications 20:1491-1497.
137. Saunders, D. A. 1998. Thmportance oetworks for communication and application ocological research. Surrey, Beatty & Sons, Chipping Norton, North South Wales, Australia.
138. Saunders, D. A., R. J. Hobbs, and C. R. Margules. 1991. Biological consequences ocosystem fragmentation: A review. Servation Biology 5:18-32.
139. Saura, S. 2008. Evaluating forest landscape cectivity through efor Senode 2.2. In R. Lafortezza, J. Chen, G. Sanesi, and T. R. Crow [eds.], Patterns and prs forest landscapes: Multiple use and sustainable management, 403-422. Spger Verlag, New York, New York, USA.
140. Saura, S., and J. To. 2009. Efor Senode 2.2: A software package for quantifying thmportance of habitat patches foandscape cectivity. Envimental Modelling & Software 24:135-139.
141. Schick, R. S., and S. T. Lindley. 2007. Directed cectivity among fish populati a riveetwork. Journal of Applied Ecology 44:1116-1126.
142. Schlaepfer, M. A., M. C. Runge, and P. W. Sherman. 2002. Ecological and evolutionary traps. Tdn Ecology & Evolution 17:474-480.
143. Scher, T. W. 1989. F webs from the small to tharge: The Rrt H. MacArthur Award Lecture. Ecology 70:1559-1589.
144. Shah, V. B., and B. H. McRae. 2008. Circuitscape: A t foandscapcology. In G. Varoquaux, T. Vaught, and J. Millman [eds.], Pings of the 7th Python in Science f, 62-66, Pasadena, Califoa, USA, 2008. SciPy2008, website http://conf.py.org/pings/SciPy2008/
145. Slobodkin, L. B. 2001. The g, the bad and th. Evolutionary Ecology Research 3:1-13.
146. Solé, R. V., F. Bartumeus, and J. G. P. Gamarra. 2005. Gap percolation in rainforests. Oikos 110:177-185.
147. Solé, R. V., and J. M. Montoya. 2006. Ecological network meltdown from habitat loss and fragmentation. In J. A. Dunne, and M. Pascual [eds.], Ecological networks, 305-323. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
148. Soulé, M. E., J. A. Estes, J. Berger, and C. M. Del Rio. 2003. Ecological ectivss: servation goals teractive spes. servation Biology 17:1238-1250.
149. Soulé, M. E., J. A. Estes, B. Miller, and D. L. Hold. 2005. Stgly interacting spes: servation policy, management, and ethics. BioScience 55:168-176.
150. Spencer, M., and P. H. War. 1996. Thcts of habitat size and puctivity on f web structurn small aquatic microcosms. Oikos 75:419-430.
151. Sivasan, U. T., J. A. Dunne, J. Harte, and N. D. Martinez. 2007. Response of compex f webs to realistic extinction sequences. Ecology 88:671-682.
152. Staddon, P., Z. Lindo, P. Critten, F. Gilbert, and A. Gonzalez. 2010. Nectivity, non-random extinction, and ecosystem function in experimental metacommunities. Ecology Letters 13:543-552.
153. Staniczenko, P. P. A., O. T. Lewis, N. S. Js, and F. d-Tsochas. 2010. Structural dynamics and robustness of f webs. Ecology Letters 13:891-899.
154. Steffan-Dewenter, I. 2003. Importance of habitat area and landscape context for spes richness of bees and waspn fragmented orchard meadows. Servation Biology 17:1036-1044.
155. Steffan-Dewenter, I., A.-M. Kl, V. Galle, T. Alfert, and T. Tschamtke. 2006. Beiversity and plant-pollinatonteracti fragmented landscapes. In N. M. Waser, and J. Ollerton [eds.], Plant-pollinatonteractions: From spalization to gralization, 387-407. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
156. Steffan-Dewenter, I., U. Munzenberg, C. Burger, C. Thies, and T. Tscharntke 2002. Scale-depent ects oandscape context on th pollinator guilds. Ecology 83: 1421-1432.
157. Stour, D. B., and J. Bascompte. 2010. Understanding f-web persistence from local to global scales. Ecology Letters 13:154-161.
158. Sugihara, G., and H. Ye. 2009. Cooperativetwork dynamics. Nature 458:979-980.
159. Swift, T. L., and S. J. Hannon. 2010. Critical thresholds assated with habitat loss: A review of the concepts, evidence, and applications. Biological Reviews of the Cambge Philosophical Sety 85:35-53.
160. Terborgh, J., L. Lopez, P. V. Nuñez, M. Rao, G. Shahabuddin, G. Orihuela, M. Riverot al 2001. Ecological meltdown in pator-f forest fragments. Science 294:1923-1926.
161. Tewksbury, J. J., D. J. Levey, N. M. Haddad, S. Sargent, J. L. Orrock, A. Weldon, B. J. Daniel et al 2002. Corors act plants, animals, and thteracti fragmented landscapes. Pings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 99:12923-12926.
162. Theobald, D. M. 2006. Explog the functional cectivity oandscapes ug landscapetworks. In K. R. Crooks, and M. Sanjayan [eds.], Nectivity conservation, 416-443. Cambge University Press, Cambge, UK.
163. Tilman, D., R. M. May, C. L. Lehman, and M. A. Nowak. 1994. Habitat destruction and thxtinction debt. Nature 371:65-66.
164. Trani, M., and R. Giles. 1999. An analysis oeforestation: Metrics u tescribe pattern change. Forest Ecology and Management 114:459-470.
165. Treml, E. A., P. N. Halpin, D. L. Urban, and L. F. Prat. 2008. Modeling population cectivity by an curts, a graph-theoretic approach for mae conservation. Landscape Ecology 23:19-36.
166. Tylianakis, J. M. 2009. Warming up f webs. Science 323:1300-1301.
167. Tylianakis, J. M., R. K. Didham, J. Bascompte, and D. A. Wardle. 2008. Global change and spenteracti terrestrial ecosystems. Ecology Letters 11:1351-1363.
168. Tylianakis, J. M., E. Laliberte, A. Niel, and J. Bascompte. 2010. Servation of spenteraction networks. Biological servation 143:2270-2279.
169. Tylianakis, J. M., T. Tscharntke, and O. T. Lewis. 2007. Habitat modification alters the structure of tropical host-parasit f webs. Nature 445:202-205.
170. Urban, D., and T. Keitt. 2001. Landscape cectivity: A graph-theoretic perspective. Ecology 82:1205-1218.
171. Urban, D. L., E. S. Minor, E. A. Treml, and R. S. Schick. 2009. Graph models of habitat mosaics. Ecology Letters 12:260-273.
172. Vázquez, D. P., and M. A. Aizen. 2003. Null model analyses of spalization in plant-pollinatonteractions. Ecology 84:2493-2501.
173. Vázquez, D. P., and D. Simberloff. 2003. Changen interaction biodiversity induced by an intuced ungulate. Ecology Letters 6:1077-1083.
174. Vell, M., K. Verheyen, H. Jacquemyn, A. Kolb, H. Van Claster, G. Peterken, and M. Hermy. 2006. Extinction debt of forest plants persists for more than a century lowing habitat fragmentation. Ecology 87:542-548.
175. Vos, C., P. Berry, P. Opdam, H. Baveco, B. Nijhof, J. O'Hanley, C. Bell et al 2008. Adapting landscapes to climate change: Examples of climate-proocosystem networks and priority adaptation zs. Journal of Applied Ecology 45:1722-1731
176. Werg, U., M. Ruckelshaus, and P. Kava. 1995. The promise and limitations of spatial modeln conservation biology. Oikos 74:349-356.
177. Williams, S. E., L. P. Shoo, J. L. Isaac, A. A. Hoffmann, and G. Langham. 2008. Towards an integrated framework for assesg the vulnerability of spes to climate change. PLoS Biology 6:e325.
178. Wil, K. A., E. Meijaard, S. Drumm, H. S. Grantham, L. Boitani, G. Catullo, L. Christital 2010. Serving biodiversity in puction landscapes. Ecological Applications 20:1721-1732.
179. Wright, D. H., A. Gonzalez, and D. C. eman. 2007. Changen nestednesn experimental communities o fauna undergg extinction. Pedologia 50:497-503.
180. Yaac, G., Y. Ziv, and M. L. Rozweig. 2007. Habitat fragmentation may not matter to speiversity. Pings of the Royal Sety of Lon, B, Biological Sciences 274:2409-2412.
181. Zeigler, B. P. 1977. Persistence and patchiness of pator-prey systemnduced by discretvent population exchange mechanisms. Journal of Theoretical Biology 67:687-713.