Infection, immunoregulation, and cancer

Immunological Reviews

Volumn 240, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 141-159

  Rook, Graham A W ^a   Dalgleish, Angus ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^b ST GEORGE'S UNIVERSITY HOSPITALS NHS FOUNDATION TRUST   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Cancer; Hygiene hypothesis; IL 10; Immunoregulation; Infection; TGF ; Treg

Indexed keywords

INTERLEUKIN 10; TRANSFORMING GROWTH FACTOR BETA;

ACUTE LYMPHOCYTIC LEUKEMIA; ANGIOGENESIS; CANCER INCIDENCE; COLON CANCER; ESOPHAGUS CARCINOMA; HODGKIN DISEASE; HUMAN; HYGIENE; HYPOTHESIS; IMMUNOMODULATION; IMMUNOREGULATION; INFECTION; INFLAMMATION; METASTASIS; NEOPLASM; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REGULATORY T LYMPHOCYTE; REVIEW; STOMACH CARCINOMA;

BACTERIAL INFECTIONS; HUMANS; IMMUNITY; INFLAMMATION; LYMPHOCYTES; NEOPLASMS;

EID: 79951879290     PISSN: 01052896     EISSN: 1600065X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-065X.2010.00987.x     Document Type: Review

References (159)

1. Rook GAW. 99th Dahlem Conference on Infection, Inflammation and Chronic Inflammatory Disorders: Darwinian medicine and the 'hygiene' or 'old friends' hypothesis. Clin Exp Immunol 2010;160:70-79.
2. Parkin DM. The global health burden of infection-associated cancers in the year 2002. Int J Cancer 2006;118:3030-3044.
3. Suarez F, Lortholary O, Hermine O, Lecuit M. Infection-associated lymphomas derived from marginal zone B cells: a model of antigen-driven lymphoproliferation. Blood 2006;107:3034-3044.
4. de Martel C, Franceschi S. Infections and cancer: established associations and new hypotheses. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2009;70:183-194.
5. Herrera LA, Benitez-Bribiesca L, Mohar A, Ostrosky-Wegman P. Role of infectious diseases in human carcinogenesis. Environ Mol Mutagen 2005;45:284-303.
6. van Lier EA, van Kranen HJ, van Vliet JA, Rahamat-Langendoen JC. Estimated number of new cancer cases attributable to infection in the Netherlands in 2003. Cancer Lett 2008;272:226-231.
7. Chene A, et al. Endemic Burkitt's lymphoma as a polymicrobial disease: new insights on the interaction between Plasmodium falciparum and Epstein-Barr virus. Semin Cancer Biol 2009;19:411-420.
8. Randi G, Franceschi S, La Vecchia C. Gallbladder cancer worldwide: geographical distribution and risk factors. Int J Cancer 2006;118:1591-1602.
9. Dacosta NA, Kinare SG. Association of lung carcinoma and tuberculosis. J Postgrad Med 1991;37:185-189.
10. Engels EA, et al. Tuberculosis and subsequent risk of lung cancer in Xuanwei, China. Int J Cancer 2009;124:1183-1187.
11. Semino-Mora C, Doi SQ, Marty A, Simko V, Carlstedt I, Dubois A. Intracellular and interstitial expression of Helicobacter pylori virulence genes in gastric precancerous intestinal metaplasia and adenocarcinoma. J Infect Dis 2003;187:1165-1177.
12. Colotta F, Allavena P, Sica A, Garlanda C, Mantovani A. Cancer-related inflammation, the seventh hallmark of cancer: links to genetic instability. Carcinogenesis 2009;30:1073-1081.
13. O'Byrne KJ, Dalgleish AG, Browning MJ, Steward WP, Harris AL. The relationship between angiogenesis and the immune response in carcinogenesis and the progression of malignant disease. Eur J Cancer 2000;36:151-169.
14. Balkwill F. Tumour necrosis factor and cancer. Nat Rev Cancer 2009;9:361-371.
15. Aggarwal BB, Shishodia S, Sandur SK, Pandey MK, Sethi G. Inflammation and cancer: how hot is the link? Biochem Pharmacol 2006;72:1605-1621.
16. O'Byrne KJ, Dalgleish AG. Chronic immune activation and inflammation as the cause of malignancy. Br J Cancer 2001;85:473-483.
17. Porta C, et al. Cellular and molecular pathways linking inflammation and cancer. Immunobiology 2009;214:761-777.
18. De Palma M, Naldini L. Tie2-expressing monocytes (TEMs): novel targets and vehicles of anticancer therapy? Biochim Biophys Acta 2009;1796:5-10.
19. Mantovani A, Allavena P, Sica A, Balkwill F. Cancer-related inflammation. Nature 2008;454:436-444.
20. Kim S, et al. Carcinoma-produced factors activate myeloid cells through TLR2 to stimulate metastasis. Nature 2009;457:102-106.
21. Bielas JH, Loeb KR, Rubin BP, True LD, Loeb LA. Human cancers express a mutator phenotype. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2006;103:18238-18242.
22. Jones PA, Baylin SB. The epigenomics of cancer. Cell 2007;128:683-692.
23. Erdman SE, et al. Unifying roles for regulatory T cells and inflammation in cancer. Int J Cancer 2010;126:1651-1665.
24. Geiger TR, Peeper DS. Metastasis mechanisms. Biochim Biophys Acta 2009;1796:293-308.
25. Abdelrahim M, Konduri S, Basha R, Philip PA, Baker CH. Angiogenesis: an update and potential drug approaches (review). Int J Oncol 2010;36:5-18.
26. Wu Y, Zhou BP. TNF-alpha/NF-kappaB/Snail pathway in cancer cell migration and invasion. Br J Cancer 2010;102:639-644.
27. Orosz P, Echtenacher B, Falk W, Ruschoff J, Weber D, Mannel DN. Enhancement of experimental metastasis by tumor necrosis factor. J Exp Med 1993;177:1391-1398.
28. Niwa T, et al. Inflammatory processes triggered by Helicobacter pylori infection cause aberrant DNA methylation in gastric epithelial cells. Cancer Res 2010;70:1430-1440.
29. Lecuit M, et al. Immunoproliferative small intestinal disease associated with Campylobacter jejuni. N Engl J Med 2004;350:239-248.
30. Ferreri AJ, et al. Evidence for an association between Chlamydia psittaci and ocular adnexal lymphomas. J Natl Cancer Inst 2004;96:586-594.
31. Hussell T, Isaacson PG, Crabtree JE, Spencer J. The response of cells from low-grade B-cell gastric lymphomas of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue to Helicobacter pylori. Lancet 1993;342:571-574.
32. D'Elios MM, Bergman MP, Amedei A, Appelmelk BJ, Del Prete G. Helicobacter pylori and gastric autoimmunity. Microbes Infect 2004;6:1395-1401.
33. Chen LT, et al. Long-term results of anti-Helicobacter pylori therapy in early-stage gastric high-grade transformed MALT lymphoma. J Natl Cancer Inst 2005;97:1345-1353.
34. Yuki N. Human gangliosides and bacterial lipo-oligosaccharides in the development of autoimmune neuropathies. Methods Mol Biol 2010;600:51-65.
35. Singh SK, Girschick HJ. Lyme borreliosis: from infection to autoimmunity. Clin Microbiol Infect 2004;10:598-614.
36. Correa P, Houghton J. Carcinogenesis of Helicobacter pylori. Gastroenterology 2007;133:659-672.
37. Nauts HC, McLaren JR. Coley toxins - the first century. Adv Exp Med Biol 1990;267:483-500.
38. Kolmel KF, et al. Infections and melanoma risk: results of a multicentre EORTC case-control study. European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer. Melanoma Res 1999;9:511-519.
39. Wernli KJ, et al. Occupational risk factors for esophageal and stomach cancers among female textile workers in Shanghai, China. Am J Epidemiol 2006;163:717-725.
40. Ray RM, et al. Occupational exposures and breast cancer among women textile workers in Shanghai. Epidemiology 2007;18:383-392.
41. Astrakianakis G, et al. Lung cancer risk among female textile workers exposed to endotoxin. J Natl Cancer Inst 2007;99:357-364.
42. Mastrangelo G, Grange JM, Fadda E, Fedeli U, Buja A, Lange JH. Lung cancer risk: effect of dairy farming and the consequence of removing that occupational exposure. Am J Epidemiol 2005;161:1037-1046.
43. Hoover RN. Bacillus Calmette-Guerin vaccination and cancer prevention: a critical review of the human experience. Cancer Res 1976;36:652-654.
44. Drake PM, et al. Sweetening the pot: adding glycosylation to the biomarker discovery equation. Clin Chem 2010;56:223-236.
45. Grange JM, Krone B, Stanford JL. Immunotherapy for malignant melanoma - tracing Ariadne's thread through the labyrinth. Eur J Cancer 2009;45:2266-2273.
46. Krone B, Kolmel KF, Henz BM, Grange JM. Protection against melanoma by vaccination with Bacille Calmette-Guerin (BCG) and/or vaccinia: an epidemiology-based hypothesis on the nature of a melanoma risk factor and its immunological control. Eur J Cancer 2005;41:104-117.
47. Mastrangelo G, et al. Does yellow fever 17D vaccine protect against melanoma? Vaccine 2009;27:588-591.
48. Riedler J, et al. Exposure to farming in early life and development of asthma and allergy: a cross-sectional survey. Lancet 2001;358:1129-1133.
49. Bach JF. The effect of infections on susceptibility to autoimmune and allergic diseases. N Engl J Med 2002;347:911-920.
50. Akdis M, et al. Immune responses in healthy and allergic individuals are characterized by a fine balance between allergen-specific T-regulatory 1 and T-helper 2 cells. J Exp Med 2004;199:1567-1575.
51. + regulatory T cells in patients with multiple sclerosis. J Exp Med 2004;199:971-979.
52. + regulatory T cells in autoimmune polyglandular syndrome type II. J Exp Med 2004;199:1285-1291.
53. Kraus TA, Toy L, Chan L, Childs J, Mayer L. Failure to induce oral tolerance to a soluble protein in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology 2004;126:1771-1778.
54. Powrie F, Read S, Mottet C, Uhlig H, Maloy K. Control of immune pathology by regulatory T cells. Novartis Found Symp 2003;252:92-98.
55. Wildin RS, Smyk-Pearson S, Filipovich AH. Clinical and molecular features of the immunodysregulation, polyendocrinopathy, enteropathy, X linked (IPEX) syndrome. J Med Genet 2002;39:537-545.
56. Benn CS, Melbye M, Wohlfahrt J, Bjorksten B, Aaby P. Cohort study of sibling effect, infectious diseases, and risk of atopic dermatitis during first 18months of life. BMJ 2004;328:1223.
57. Matricardi PM, et al. Exposure to foodborne and orofecal microbes versus airborne viruses in relation to atopy and allergic asthma: epidemiological study. Br Med J 2000;320:412-417.
58. Dunder T, Tapiainen T, Pokka T, Uhari M. Infections in child day care centers and later development of asthma, allergic rhinitis, and atopic dermatitis: prospective follow-up survey 12years after controlled randomized hygiene intervention. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2007;161:972-977.
59. Cardwell CR, Carson DJ, Yarnell J, Shields MD, Patterson CC. Atopy, home environment and the risk of childhood-onset type 1 diabetes: a population-based case-control study. Pediatr Diabetes 2008;9:191-196.
60. Amre DK, et al. Investigating the hygiene hypothesis as a risk factor in pediatric onset Crohn's disease: a case-control study. Am J Gastroenterol 2006;101:1005-1011.
61. Bernstein CN, Rawsthorne P, Cheang M, Blanchard JF. A population-based case control study of potential risk factors for IBD. Am J Gastroenterol 2006;101:993-1002.
62. Koloski NA, Bret L, Radford-Smith G. Hygiene hypothesis in inflammatory bowel disease: a critical review of the literature. World J Gastroenterol 2008;14:165-173.
63. Fumagalli M, et al. Parasites represent a major selective force for interleukin genes and shape the genetic predisposition to autoimmune conditions. J Exp Med 2009;206:1395-1408.
64. Fredericks CA, et al. Healthy young women with serotonin transporter SS polymorphism show a pro-inflammatory bias under resting and stress conditions. Brain Behav Immun 2010;24:350-357.
65. Barreiro LB, Quintana-Murci L. From evolutionary genetics to human immunology: how selection shapes host defence genes. Nat Rev Genet 2010;11:17-30.
66. Barnes KC, Grant AV, Gao P. A review of the genetic epidemiology of resistance to parasitic disease and atopic asthma: common variants for common phenotypes? Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol 2005;5:379-385.
67. Cuzick J, et al. Aspirin and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for cancer prevention: an international consensus statement. Lancet Oncol 2009;10:501-507.
68. Berg DJ, et al. Enterocolitis and colon cancer in interleukin-10-deficient mice are associated with aberrant cytokine production and CD4(+) TH1-like responses. J Clin Invest 1996;98:1010-1020.
69. Kundu N, Beaty TL, Jackson MJ, Fulton AM. Antimetastatic and antitumor activities of interleukin 10 in a murine model of breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1996;88:536-541.
70. Zheng LM, et al. Interleukin-10 inhibits tumor metastasis through an NK cell-dependent mechanism. J Exp Med 1996;184:579-584.
71. Kundu N, Fulton AM. Interleukin-10 inhibits tumor metastasis, downregulates MHC class I, and enhances NK lysis. Cell Immunol 1997;180:55-61.
72. Moore KW, de Waal Malefyt R, Coffman RL, O'Garra A. Interleukin-10 and the interleukin-10 receptor. Annu Rev Immunol 2001;19:683-765.
73. Berman RM, Suzuki T, Tahara H, Robbins PD, Narula SK, Lotze MT. Systemic administration of cellular IL-10 induces an effective, specific, and long-lived immune response against established tumors in mice. J Immunol 1996;157:231-238.
74. Inge TH, Hoover SK, Susskind BM, Barrett SK, Bear HD. Inhibition of tumor-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocyte responses by transforming growth factor beta 1. Cancer Res 1992;52:1386-1392.
75. + T cell cytotoxicity and cancer. Semin Cancer Biol 2006;16:124-136.
76. Ghiringhelli F, Menard C, Martin F, Zitvogel L. The role of regulatory T cells in the control of natural killer cells: relevance during tumor progression. Immunol Rev 2006;214:229-238.
77. Derynck R, Akhurst RJ, Balmain A. TGF-beta signaling in tumor suppression and cancer progression. Nat Genet 2001;29:117-129.
78. Engle SJ, Hoying JB, Boivin GP, Ormsby I, Gartside PS, Doetschman T. Transforming growth factor beta1 suppresses nonmetastatic colon cancer at an early stage of tumorigenesis. Cancer Res 1999;59:3379-3386.
79. Engle SJ, et al. Elimination of colon cancer in germ-free transforming growth factor beta 1-deficient mice. Cancer Res 2002;62:6362-6366.
80. Nizar S, et al. T-regulatory cell modulation: the future of cancer immunotherapy? Br J Cancer 2009;100:1697-1703.
81. Fox JG, et al. Concurrent enteric helminth infection modulates inflammation and gastric immune responses and reduces helicobacter-induced gastric atrophy. Nat Med 2000;6:536-542.
82. Erdman SE, et al. CD4(+)CD25(+) regulatory lymphocytes require interleukin 10 to interrupt colon carcinogenesis in mice. Cancer Res 2003;63:6042-6050.
83. + regulatory lymphocytes induce regression of intestinal tumors in ApcMin/+ mice. Cancer Res 2005;65:3998-4004.
84. Menetrier-Caux C, Gobert M, Caux C. Differences in tumor regulatory T-cell localization and activation status impact patient outcome. Cancer Res 2009;69:7895-7898.
85. Bates GJ, et al. Quantification of regulatory T cells enables the identification of high-risk breast cancer patients and those at risk of late relapse. J Clin Oncol 2006;24:5373-5380.
86. Welsh TJ, Green RH, Richardson D, Waller DA, O'Byrne KJ, Bradding P. Macrophage and mast-cell invasion of tumor cell islets confers a marked survival advantage in non-small-cell lung cancer. J Clin Oncol 2005;23:8959-8967.
87. Gounaris E, et al. T-regulatory cells shift from a protective anti-inflammatory to a cancer-promoting proinflammatory phenotype in polyposis. Cancer Res 2009;69:5490-5497.
88. Colombo MP, Piconese S. Polyps wrap mast cells and Treg within tumorigenic tentacles. Cancer Res 2009;69:5619-5622.
89. + T cell levels in NOD mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2002;99:12287-12292.
90. Goodman WA, Levine AD, Massari JV, Sugiyama H, McCormick TS, Cooper KD. IL-6 signaling in psoriasis prevents immune suppression by regulatory T cells. J Immunol 2009;183:3170-3176.
91. Sakaguchi S, Wing K, Yamaguchi T. Dynamics of peripheral tolerance and immune regulation mediated by Treg. Eur J Immunol 2009;39:2331-2336.
92. Sakaguchi S, Wing K, Onishi Y, Prieto-Martin P, Yamaguchi T. Regulatory T cells: how do they suppress immune responses? Int Immunol 2009;21:1105-1111.
93. Zuany-Amorim C, et al. Suppression of airway eosinophilia by killed Mycobacterium vaccae-induced allergen-specific regulatory T-cells. Nat Med 2002;8:625-629.
94. Wilson MS, Taylor MD, Balic A, Finney CA, Lamb JR, Maizels RM. Suppression of allergic airway inflammation by helminth-induced regulatory T cells. J Exp Med 2005;202:1199-1212.
95. Maizels RM, Yazdanbakhsh M. Immune regulation by helminth parasites: cellular and molecular mechanisms. Nat Rev Immunol 2003;3:733-744.
96. van den Biggelaar AH, et al. Long-term treatment of intestinal helminths increases mite skin-test reactivity in Gabonese schoolchildren. J Infect Dis 2004;189:892-900.
97. Rastogi T, et al. Cancer incidence rates among South Asians in four geographic regions: India, Singapore, UK and US. Int J Epidemiol 2008;37:147-160.
98. Gutensohn N, Cole P. Childhood social environment and Hodgkin's disease. N Engl J Med 1981;304:135-140.
99. Glaser SL, Hsu JL. Hodgkin's disease in Asians: incidence patterns and risk factors in population-based data. Leuk Res 2002;26:261-269.
100. Mani H, Jaffe ES. Hodgkin lymphoma: an update on its biology with new insights into classification. Clin Lymphoma Myeloma 2009;9:206-216.
101. Strachan DP. Hay fever, hygiene, and household size. Br Med J 1989;299:1259-1260.
102. Filippi CM, Estes EA, Oldham JE, von Herrath MG. Immunoregulatory mechanisms triggered by viral infections protect from type 1 diabetes in mice. J Clin Invest 2009;119:1515-1523.
103. Cartwright RA, Watkins G. Epidemiology of Hodgkin's disease: a review. Hematol Oncol 2004;22:11-26.
104. Greaves M. Infection, immune responses and the aetiology of childhood leukaemia. Nat Rev Cancer 2006;6:193-203.
105. Ma X, et al. Daycare attendance and risk of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. Br J Cancer 2002;86:1419-1424.
106. Gilham C, et al. Day care in infancy and risk of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia: findings from UK case-control study. BMJ 2005;330:1294.
107. Feltbower RG, McKinney PA, Greaves MF, Parslow RC, Bodansky HJ. International parallels in leukaemia and diabetes epidemiology. Arch Dis Child 2004;89:54-56.
108. Stene LC, Nafstad P. Relation between occurrence of type 1 diabetes and asthma. Lancet 2001;357:607.
109. Fox JG, Wang TC. The "African Enigma"-another explanation (letter). Nat Med 2000;6:1297-1298.
110. Baron JH, Sonnenberg A. Period- and cohort-age contours of deaths from gastric and duodenal ulcer in New York 1804-1998. Am J Gastroenterol 2001;96:2887-2891.
111. Sonnenberg A. Causes underlying the birth-cohort phenomenon of peptic ulcer: analysis of mortality data 1911-2000, England and Wales. Int J Epidemiol 2006;35:1090-1097.
112. Robinson K, et al. Helicobacter pylori-induced peptic ulcer disease is associated with inadequate regulatory T cell responses. Gut 2008;57:1375-1385.
113. Atherton JC, Blaser MJ. Coadaptation of Helicobacter pylori and humans: ancient history, modern implications. J Clin Invest 2009;119:2475-2487.
114. Vaezi MF, et al. CagA-positive strains of Helicobacter pylori may protect against Barrett's esophagus. Am J Gastroenterol 2000;95:2206-2211.
115. Cover TL, Blaser MJ. Helicobacter pylori in health and disease. Gastroenterology 2009;136:1863-1873.
116. Lundgren A, et al. Mucosal FOXP3-expressing CD4+ CD25high regulatory T cells in Helicobacter pylori-infected patients. Infect Immun 2005;73:523-531.
117. Reibman J, et al. Asthma is inversely associated with Helicobacter pylori status in an urban population. PLoS ONE 2008;3:e4060.
118. Codolo G, et al. The neutrophil-activating protein of Helicobacter pylori down-modulates Th2 inflammation in ovalbumin-induced allergic asthma. Cell Microbiol 2008;10:2355-2363.
119. D'Elios MM, et al. Helicobacter pylori, asthma and allergy. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 2009;56:1-8.
120. Center MM, Jemal A, Smith RA, Ward E. Worldwide variations in colorectal cancer. CA Cancer J Clin 2009;59:366-378.
121. Summers RW, Elliott DE, Urban JF Jr, Thompson R, Weinstock JV. Trichuris suis therapy in Crohn's disease. Gut 2005;54:87-90.
122. Summers RW, Elliott DE, Urban JF Jr, Thompson RA, Weinstock JV. Trichuris suis therapy for active ulcerative colitis: a randomized controlled trial. Gastroenterology 2005;128:825-832.
123. Mazmanian SK, Round JL, Kasper DL. A microbial symbiosis factor prevents intestinal inflammatory disease. Nature 2008;453:620-625.
124. Turnbaugh PJ, et al. A core gut microbiome in obese and lean twins. Nature 2009;457:480-484.
125. Dethlefsen L, Huse S, Sogin ML, Relman DA. The pervasive effects of an antibiotic on the human gut microbiota, as revealed by deep 16s rRNA sequencing. PLoS Biol 2008;6:e280.
126. Marshall JK. Post-infectious irritable bowel syndrome following water contamination. Kidney Int Suppl 2009;112:S42-S43.
127. Pinquart M, Duberstein PR. Depression and cancer mortality: a meta-analysis. Psychol Med 2010;40:1797-1810.
128. Satin JR, Linden W, Phillips MJ. Depression as a predictor of disease progression and mortality in cancer patients: a meta-analysis. Cancer 2009;115:5349-5361.
129. Rook GAW, Lowry CA. The hygiene hypothesis and psychiatric disorders. Trends Immunol 2008;29:150-158.
130. Rook GAW, Lowry CA. The hygiene hypothesis and affective and anxiety disorders. In: Rook G ed. The Hygiene Hypothesis and Darwinian Medicine. Basel: Birkhäuser, 2009:189-220.
131. Muller N. COX-2 inhibitors as antidepressants and antipsychotics: clinical evidence. Curr Opin Investig Drugs 2010;11:31-42.
132. Lowry CA, et al. Identification of an immune-responsive mesolimbocortical serotonergic system: potential role in regulation of emotional behavior. Neuroscience 2007;146:756-772.
133. Gravekamp C, Paterson Y. Harnessing Listeria monocytogenes to target tumors. Cancer Biol Ther 2010;9:257-265.
134. Kim SH, Castro F, Paterson Y, Gravekamp C. High efficacy of a Listeria-based vaccine against metastatic breast cancer reveals a dual mode of action. Cancer Res 2009;69:5860-5866.
135. Motamedi M, Arab S, Moazzeni SM, Khamis Abadi M, Hadjati J. Improvement of a dendritic cell-based therapeutic cancer vaccine with components of Toxoplasma gondii. Clin Vaccine Immunol 2009;16:1393-1398.
136. Shelley MD, Mason MD, Kynaston H. Intravesical therapy for superficial bladder cancer: a systematic review of randomised trials and meta-analyses. Canc Treat Rev 2010;36:195-205.
137. Tan JK, Ho VC. Pooled analysis of the efficacy of Bacille Calmette-Guerin (BCG) immunotherapy in malignant melanoma. J Dermatol Surg Oncol 1993;19:985-990.
138. + cytotoxic T cells specific for macrophages infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Infect Immun 1997;65:4525-4530.
139. Mendes R, et al. Clinical and immunological assessment of Mycobacterium vaccae (SRL172) with chemotherapy in patients with malignant mesothelioma. Br J Cancer 2002;86:336-341.
140. Hrouda D, Baban B, Dunsmuir WD, Kirby RS, Dalgleish AG. Immunotherapy of advanced prostate cancer: a phase I/II trial using Mycobacterium vaccae (SRL172). Br J Urol 1998;82:568-573.
141. O'Brien ME, et al. A randomized phase II study of SRL172 (Mycobacterium vaccae) combined with chemotherapy in patients with advanced inoperable non-small-cell lung cancer and mesothelioma. Br J Cancer 2000;83:853-857.
142. O'Brien ME, et al. SRL172 (killed Mycobacterium vaccae) in addition to standard chemotherapy improves quality of life without affecting survival, in patients with advanced non-small-cell lung cancer: phase III results. Ann Oncol 2004;15:906-914.
143. Stanford JL, Stanford CA, O'Brien ME, Grange JM. Successful immunotherapy with Mycobacterium vaccae in the treatment of adenocarcinoma of the lung. Eur J Cancer 2008;44:224-227.
144. Patel PM, et al. An evaluation of a preparation of Mycobacterium vaccae (SRL172) as an immunotherapeutic agent in renal cancer. Eur J Cancer 2008;44:216-223.
145. Nicholson S, et al. A randomized phase II trial of SRL172 (Mycobacterium vaccae) +/- low-dose interleukin-2 in the treatment of metastatic malignant melanoma. Melanoma Res 2003;13:389-393.
146. Wu S, et al. A human colonic commensal promotes colon tumorigenesis via activation of T helper type 17 T cell responses. Nat Med 2009;15:1016-1022.
147. Toprak NU, et al. A possible role of Bacteroides fragilis enterotoxin in the aetiology of colorectal cancer. Clin Microbiol Infect 2006;12:782-786.
148. Cohen RJ, Shannon BA, McNeal JE, Shannon T, Garrett KL. Propionibacterium acnes associated with inflammation in radical prostatectomy specimens: a possible link to cancer evolution? J Urol 2005;173:1969-1974.
149. Namiki K, et al. Persistent exposure to Mycoplasma induces malignant transformation of human prostate cells. PLoS ONE 2009;4:e6872.
150. Umetsu DT, McIntire JJ, DeKruyff RH. TIM-1, hepatitis A virus and the hygiene theory of atopy: association of TIM-1 with atopy. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2005;40(Suppl.):S43.
151. Matricardi PM, Rosmini F, Panetta V, Ferrigno L, Bonini S. Hay fever and asthma in relation to markers of infection in the United States. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2002;110:381-387.
152. Yazdanbakhsh M, Kremsner PG, van Ree R. Allergy, parasites, and the hygiene hypothesis. Science 2002;296:490-494.
153. Correale J, Farez M. Association between parasite infection and immune responses in multiple sclerosis. Ann Neurol 2007;61:97-108.
154. Pelosi U, et al. The inverse association of salmonellosis in infancy with allergic rhinoconjunctivitis and asthma at school-age: a longitudinal study. Allergy 2005;60:626-630.
155. Bjorksten B, Naaber P, Sepp E, Mikelsaar M. The intestinal microflora in allergic Estonian and Swedish 2-year-old children. Clin Exp Allergy 1999;29:342-346.
156. Shirakawa T, Enomoto T, Shimazu S, Hopkin JM. The inverse association between tuberculin responses and atopic disorder. Science 1996;275:77-79.
157. Obihara CC, et al. Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection may protect against allergy in a tuberculosis endemic area. Clin Exp Allergy 2006;36:70-76.
158. Wagner A, et al. Immunoregulation by Toxoplasma gondii infection prevents allergic immune responses in mice. Int J Parasitol 2009;39:465-472.
159. McDade TW, Rutherford J, Adair L, Kuzawa CW. Early origins of inflammation: microbial exposures in infancy predict lower levels of C-reactive protein in adulthood. Proc Biol Sci 2010;277:1129-1137.