Fixing our focus: Training attention to regulate emotion

Personality and Social Psychology Review

Volumn 15, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 75-102

  Wadlinger, Heather A ^a   Isaacowitz, Derek M ^a  

^a BRANDEIS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

attention; attention training; emotion regulation; meditation; selective attention

Indexed keywords

EID: 78650970557     PISSN: 10888683     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/1088868310365565     Document Type: Article

References (223)

1. Aaronson, N.K., Ahmedzai, S., Bergman, B., Bullinger, M., Cull, A., Duez, N.J.,et al.(1993). The European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer QLQ-C30: A quality-of-life instrument for use in international clinical trials in oncology. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 85, 365-376.
2. Allard, E.S., Wadlinger, H.A., & Isaacowitz, D.M. (in press). Positive gaze preferences in older adults: Assessing the role of cognitive effort with pupil dilation. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition.
3. American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: Author.
4. Amir, N., Beard, C., Burns, M., & Bomyea, J. (2009). Attention modification program in individuals with generalized anxiety disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118, 28-33.
5. Amir, N., Weber, G., Beard, C., Bomyea, J., & Taylor, C.T. (2008). The effect of a single-session attention modification program on response to a public-speaking challenge in socially anxious individuals. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 860-868.
6. Anderson, N.D., Lau, M.A., Segal, Z.V., & Bishop, S.R. (2007). Mindfulness-based stress reduction and attentional control. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 14, 449-463.
7. Ashby, F.G., Isen, A.M., & Turken, U. (1999). A neuropsychological theory of positive affect and its influence on cognition. Psychological Review, 106, 529-550.
8. Bargh, J.A., & Chartrand, T.L. (1999). The unbearable automaticity of being. American Psychologist, 54, 462-479.
9. Barrett, L.F. (2006). Solving the emotion paradox: Categorization and the experience of emotion. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10, 20-46.
10. Barrett, L.F., & Bar, M. (2009). See it with feeling: Affective predictions during object perception. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society: Biological Sciences, 364, 1325-1334.
11. Beck, A.T., Epstein, N., Brown, G., & Steer, R.A. (1988). An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: Psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 893-897.
12. Beck, A.T., Steer, R.A., & Brown, G.K. (1996). Manual for Beck Depression Inventory-II. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
13. Beck, A.T., Ward, C.H., Mendelson, M., Mock, J., & Erbaugh, J. (1961). An inventory for measuring depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 4, 561-571.
14. Beevers, C.G., & Carver, C.S. (2003). Attentional bias and mood persistence as prospective predictors of dysphoria. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27, 619-637.
15. Bherer, L., Kramer, A.F., & Peterson, M.S. (2005). Training effects on dual-task performance: Are there age-related differences in plasticity of attentional control? Psychology and Aging, 20, 695-709.
16. Bherer, L., Kramer, A.F., Peterson, M.S., Colcombe, S., Erickson, K., & Becic, E. (2006). Testing the limits of cognitive plasticity in older adults: Application to attentional control. Acta Psychologica, 123, 261-278.
17. Bishop, S.R., Lau, M., Shapiro, S., Carlson, L., Anderson, N.D., Carmody, J.,et al.(2004). Mindfulness: A proposed operational definition. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11, 230-241.
18. Block, J., & Kremen, A.M. (1996). IQ and ego-resiliency: Conceptual and empirical connections and separateness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 349-361.
19. Borders, A., Earleywine, M., & Jajodia, A. (2010). Could mindfulness decrease anger, hostility, and aggression by decreasing rumination? Aggressive Behavior, 36, 28-44.
20. Bradley, B.P., Mogg, K., & Lee, S.C. (1997). Attentional biases for negative information in induced and naturally occurring dysphoria. Behavioral Research Therapy, 35, 911-927.
21. Bradley, B.P., Mogg, K., & Millar, N.H. (2000). Covert and overt orienting of attention to emotional faces in anxiety. Cognition and Emotion, 14, 789-808.
22. Brefczynski-Lewis, J.A., Lutz, A., Schaefer, H.S., Levinson, D.B., & Davidson, R.J. (2007). Neural correlates of attentional expertise in long-term meditation practitioners. PNAS, 104, 11483-11488.
23. Broadbent, D.E. (1958). Perception and communication. New York: Oxford University Press.
24. Brown, K.W., Ryan, R.M., & Creswell, J.D. (2007). Mindfulness: Theoretical foundations and evidence for its salutary effects. Psychological Inquiry, 18, 211-237.
25. Bryant, F.B. (2007). Savoring: A new model of positive experience. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
26. Callejas, A., Lupiàñez, J., Funes, M.J., & Tudela, P. (2005). Modulations among the alerting, orienting, and executive control networks. Experimental Brain Research, 167, 27-37.
27. Calvo, M.G., & Nummenmaa, L. (2007). Processing of unattended emotional visual scenes. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 136, 347-369.
28. Carlson, L.E., Speca, M., Faris, P., & Patel, K.D. (2007). One year pre-post intervention follow-up of psychological, immune, endocrine and blood pressure outcomes of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) in breast and prostrate cancer outpatients. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 21, 1038-1049.
29. Carlson, L.E., Speca, M., Patel, K.D., & Goodey, E. (2004). Mindfulness-based stress reduction in relation to quality of life, mood, symptoms of stress and levels of cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS) and melatonin in breast and prostate cancer outpatients. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 29, 448-474.
30. Carmody, J., & Baer, R.A. (2008). Relationships between mindfulness practice and levels of mindfulness, medical and psychological symptoms and well-being in a mindfulness-based stress reduction program. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 31, 23-33.
31. Carstensen, L.L., & Mikels, J.A. (2005). At the intersection of emotion and cognition: Aging and the positivity effect. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14, 117-121.
32. Carstensen, L.L., Mikels, J.A., & Mather, M. (2006). Aging and the intersection of cognition, motivation, and emotion. In J. E. Birren & W. K. Schaire (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of aging (6th ed., pp. 343-362). Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier.
33. Carstensen, L.L., Pasupathi, M., Mayr, U., & Nesselroade, J.R. (2000). Emotional experience in everyday life across the adult life span. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 644-655.
34. Cartwright-Hatton, S., & Wells, A. (1997). Beliefs about worry and intrusions: The Meat-Cognitions Questionnaire and its correlates. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 3, 279-296.
35. Carver, C. (2001). Affect and the functional bases of behavior: On the dimensional structure of affective experience. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5, 345-356.
36. Caseras, X., Garner, M., Bradley, B.P., & Mogg, K. (2007). Biases in visual orienting to negative and positive scenes in dysphoria: An eye movement study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 491-497.
37. Chambers, R., Chuen Yee Lo, B., & Allen, N.B. (2008). The impact of intensive mindfulness training on attentional control, cognitive style, and affect. Cognitive Therapy Research, 32, 303-322.
38. Chang, V.Y., Palesh, O., Caldwell, R., Glasgow, N., Abramson, M., Luskin, F.,et al.(2004). The effects of a mindfulness-based stress reduction program on stress, mindfulness, self-efficacy, and positive states of mind. Stress and Health: Journal of the International Society for the Investigation of Stress, 20, 141-147.
39. Clark, M.S., & Isen, A.M. (1982). Toward understanding the relationship between feeling states and social behavior. In A. Hastorf & A. Isen (Eds.), Cognitive social psychology (pp. 73-108). New York: Elsevier.
40. Clarke, P., MacLeod, C., & Shirazee, N. (2008). Prepared for the worst: Readiness to acquire threat bias and susceptibility to elevate trait anxiety. Emotion, 8, 47-57.
41. Coelho, H.F., Canter, P.H., & Ernst, E. (2007). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy: Evaluating current evidence and informing future research. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75, 1000-1005.
42. Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24, 385-396.
43. Compton, R.J. (2000). Ability to disengage attention predicts negative mood. Cognition and Emotion, 14, 401-415.
44. Dandeneau, S.D., Baldwin, M.W., Baccus, J.R., Sakellaropoulo, M., & Pruessner, J.C. (2007). Cutting stress off at the pass: Reducing vigilance and responsiveness to social threat by manipulating attention. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 651-666.
45. Davidson, J.R., Potts, N.L., Richichi, E.A., Ford, S.M., Krishnan, K.R., Smith, R.D.,et al.(1991). The Brief Social Phobia Scale. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 52, 48-51.
46. Davidson, R.J., Jackson, D.C., & Kalin, N.H. (2000). Emotion, plasticity, context, and regulation: Perspectives from affective neuroscience. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 890-909.
47. Davidson, R.J., Kabat-Zinn, J., Schumacher, J., Rosenkranz, M., Muller, D., Santorelli, S.F.,et al.(2003). Alterations in brain and immune function produced by mindfulness meditation. Psychosomatic Medicine, 65, 564-570.
48. Davidson, R.J., & Lutz, A. (2008). Buddha's brain: Neuroplasticity and meditation. IEEE Signal Processing Magazine, 25(1), 172-176.
49. Derogatis, L. (1977). The SCL-90-R: Administration, scoring and procedures manual 1. Baltimore: Clinical Psychometric Research.
50. Derogatis, L. (1992). The brief symptom inventory (BSI): Administration, scoring and procedures manual-II. Minneapolis, MN: National Computer Systems.
51. Derogatis, L. (1994). SLC-90-R: Administration, scoring, and procedures manual for the revised version. Baltimore: John Hopkins University School of Medicine.
52. Derryberry, D., & Reed, M.A. (2002). Anxiety-related attentional biases and their regulation by attentional control. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 225-236.
53. Desimone, R. (1999). Visual attention mediated by biased competition in extrastriate visual cortex. In G. W. Humphreys, J. Duncan, & A. Treisman (Eds.), Attention, space, and action: studies in cognitive neuroscience (pp. 13-30). New York: Oxford University Press.
54. Desimone, R., & Duncan, J. (1995). Neural mechanisms of selective visual attention. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 18, 193-222.
55. Diamond, L.M., & Aspinwall, L.G. (2003). Emotion regulation across the life span: An integrative perspective emphasizing self-regulation, positive affect, and dyadic processes. Motivation and Emotion, 27, 125-156.
56. Diener, E., Emmons, R.A., Larsen, R.J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction with Life Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71-75.
57. Diener, E., Sandvik, E., & Pavot, W. (1991). Happiness is the frequency, not the intensity, of positive versus negative affect. In F. Strack, M. Argyle, & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Subjective well-being: An interdisciplinary perspective (pp. 119-139). Oxford, UK: Pergamon.
58. Easwaran, E. (1991). Meditation: A simple eight-point program for translating spiritual ideals into daily life. Tomales, CA: Nilgiri Press.
59. Eizenman, M., Yu, L.H., Grupp, L., Eizenman, E., Ellenbogen, M., Gemar, M.,et al.(2003). A naturalistic visual scanning approach to assess selective attention in major depressive disorder. Psychiatry Research, 118, 117-128.
60. Ellenbogen, M.A., Schwartzman, A.E., Stewart, J., & Walker, C.D. (2006). Automatic and effortful emotional information processing regulates different aspects of the stress response. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 31, 373-387.
61. Erber, R., & Tesser, A. (1992). Task effort and the regulation of mood: The absorption hypothesis. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 28, 339-359.
62. Erisman, S.M., & Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. Emotion, 10, 72-82.
63. Fan, J., McCandliss, B.D., Fossella, J., Flombaum, J.I., & Posner, M.I. (2005). The activation of attentional networks. Neuro-Image, 26, 471-479.
64. Fan, J., McCandliss, B.D., Sommer, T., Raz, A., & Posner, M.I. (2002). Testing the efficiency and independence of attentional networks. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14, 340-347.
65. Farb, N.A.S., Anderson, A.K., Mayberg, H., Bean, J., McKeon, D., & Segal, Z.V. (2010). Minding one's emotions: Mindfulness training alters the neural expression of sadness. Emotion, 10, 25-33.
66. Fenske, M.J., & Eastwood, J.D. (2003). Modulation of focused attention by faces expressing emotion: Evidence from Flanker tasks. Emotion, 3, 327-343.
67. Fiore, M. (2009). A new look at emotional intelligence: A dual-process framework. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 13, 21-44.
68. Fiske, S.T. (1995). Social cognition. In A. Tesser (Ed.), Advanced social psychology (pp. 149-193). New York: McGraw-Hill.
69. Fleming, J.S., & Courtney, B.E. (1984). The dimensionality of self-esteem: II. Hierarchical facet model for revised measurement scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 404-421.
70. Fox, E., Russo, R., Bowles, R., & Dutton, K. (2001). Do threatening stimuli draw or hold visual attention in subclinical anxiety? Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130, 681-700.
71. Fox, N.A., & Calkins, S.D. (2003). The development of self-control of emotion: Intrinsic and extrinsic influences. Motivation and Emotion, 72, 7-26.
72. Fredrickson, B.L. (1998). What good are positive emotions? Review of General Psychology, 2, 300-319.
73. Fredrickson, B.L., Cohn, M.A., Coffey, K.A., Pek, J., & Finkel, S.M. (2008). Open hearts build lives: Positive emotions, induced through loving-kindness meditation, build consequential personal resources. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 1045-1062.
74. Fredrickson, B.L., & Joiner, T. (2002). Positive emotions trigger upward spirals towards emotional well-being. Psychological Science, 13, 172-175.
75. Fredrickson, B.L., & Levenson, R.W. (1998). Positive emotions speed recovery from the cardiovascular sequelae of negative emotions. Cognition and Emotion, 12, 191-220.
76. Fredrickson, B.L., & Losada, M.F. (2005). Positive affect and the complex dynamics of human flourishing. American Psychologist, 60, 678-686.
77. Fredrickson, B.L., Mancuso, R.A., Branigan, C., & Tugade, M.M. (2000). The undoing effect of positive emotions. Motivation and Emotion, 24, 237-258.
78. Fredrickson, B.L., Tugade, M.M., Waugh, C.E., & Larkin, G. (2003). What good are positive emotions in crises? A prospective study of resilience and emotions following the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11th, 2001. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 365-376.
79. Fuentes, L.J., & Campoy, G. (2008). The time course of alerting effect over orienting in the Attention Network Task. Experimental Brain Research, 185, 667-672.
80. Gable, P.A., & Harmon-Jones, E. (2008). Approach-motivated positive affect reduces breadth of attention. Psychological Science, 19, 476-482.
81. Goetz, M.C., Goetz, P.W., & Robinson, M.D. (2007). What's the use of being happy? Mood states, useful objects, and repetition priming effects. Emotion, 7, 675-679.
82. Goetz, P.W., Robinson, M.D., & Meier, B.P. (2008). Attention training of the appetitive motivation system: Effects on sensation seeking preferences and reward-based behavior. Motivation and Emotion, 32, 120-126.
83. Gottman, J.M. (1994). What predicts divorce? The relationship between marital processes and marital outcomes. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
84. Green, C.S., & Bavelier, D. (2003). Action video game modifies visual selective attention. Nature, 423, 534-537.
85. Gross, J.J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Review of General Psychology, 2, 271-299.
86. Gross, J.J., Carstensen, L.L., Pasupathi, M., Tsai, J., Götestam Skorpen, C., & Hsu, A.Y.C. (1997). Emotion and aging: Experience, expression, and control. Psychology and Aging, 12, 590-599.
87. Gross, J.J., & John, O.P. (2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 348-362.
88. Gross, J.J., Richards, J.M., & John, O.P. (2006). Emotion regulation in everyday life. In D. K. Snyder, J. Simpson, & J. N. Hughes (Eds.), Emotion regulation in couples and families: Pathways to dysfunction and health (pp. 13-25). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
89. Grühn, D., & Scheibe, S. (2008). Age-related differences in valence and arousal ratings of pictures from the International Affective Picture System (IAPS): Do ratings become more extreme with age? Behavior Research Methods, 40, 512-521.
90. Gutchess, A.H., Hebrank, A., Sutton, B.P., Leshikar, E., Chee, M.W.L., Tan, J.C., et al.(2007). Contextual interference in recognition memory with age. NeuroImage, 35, 1338-1347.
91. Hamilton, M. (1959). The assessment of anxiety states by rating. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 32, 50-55.
92. Hamilton, M. (1960). A rating scale for depression. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 23, 55-62.
93. Handley, I.M., Lassiter, G.D., Nickell, E.F., & Herchenroeder, L.M. (2004). Affect and automatic mood maintenance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 106-112.
94. Hartley, A.A. (2001). Age differences in dual-task interference are localized to response-generation processes. Psychology and Aging, 16, 47-54.
95. Horowitz, M.J., Adler, N., & Kegeles, S. (1988). A scale for measuring the occurrence of positive states of mind: A preliminary report. Psychosomatic Medicine, 50, 477-483.
96. Hutcherson, C.A., Seppala, E.M., & Gross, J.J. (2008). Loving-kindness meditation increases social connectedness. Emotion, 8, 720-724.
97. Isaacowitz, D.M. (2005). The gaze of the optimist. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 3, 407-415.
98. Isaacowitz, D.M. (2006). Motivated gaze: The view from the gazer. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 68-72.
99. Isaacowitz, D.M., Toner, K., Goren, D., & Wilson, H.R. (2008). Looking while unhappy: Mood congruent gaze in young adults, positive gaze in older adults. Psychological Science, 19, 848-853.
100. Isaacowitz, D.M., Toner, K., & Neupert, S. (2009). Use of gaze for real-time mood regulation: Effects of age and attentional functioning. Psychology and Aging, 24, 989-994.
101. Isaacowitz, D.M., Wadlinger, H.A., Goren, D., & Wilson, H.R. (2006a). Is there an age-related positivity effect in visual attention? A comparison of two methodologies. Emotion, 6, 511-516.
102. Isaacowitz, D.M., Wadlinger, H.A., Goren, D., & Wilson, H.R. (2006b). Selective preference in visual fixation away from negative images in old age? An eye tracking study. Psychology and Aging, 21, 40-48.
103. Jackson, D.C., Mueller, C.J., Dolski, I., Dalton, K.M., Nitschke, J.B., Urry, H.L.,et al.(2003). Now you feel it, now you don't: Frontal brain electrical asymmetry and individual differences in emotion regulation. Psychological Science, 14, 612-617.
104. James, W. (1890). The principles of psychology (Vol. 1). New York: Henry Holt.
105. Jha, A.P., Krompinger, J., & Baime, M.J. (2007). Mindfulness training modifies subsystems of attention. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 7, 109-119.
106. Jha, A.P., Stanley, E.A., Kiyonaga, A., Wong, L., & Gelfand, L. (2010). Examining the protective effects of mindfulness training on working memory capacity and affective experience. Emotion, 10, 54-64.
107. Johnson, D.R. (2009). Goal-directed attentional deployment to emotional face and individual differences in emotional regulation. Journal of Research in Personality, 43, 8-13.
108. Joormann, J., & Gotlib, I.H. (2007). Selective attention to emotional faces following recovery from depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 80-85.
109. Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: Past, present, and future. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10, 144-156.
110. Keltner, D., & Gross, J.J. (1999). Functional accounts of emotions. Cognition and Emotion, 13, 467-480.
111. Kennedy, Q., Mather, M., & Carstensen, L.L. (2004). The role of motivation in the age-related positivity effect in autobiographical memory. Psychological Science, 15, 208-214.
112. Kerns, K.A., Esso, K., & Thompson, J. (1999). Investigation of a direct intervention for improving attention in young children with ADHD. Developmental Neuropsychology, 16, 273-295.
113. Knight, M., Seymour, T.L., Gaunt, T., Baker, C., Nesmith, K., & Mather, M. (2007). Aging and goal-directed emotional attention: Distraction reverses emotional biases. Emotion, 7, 705-714.
114. Koole, S.L. (2009). The psychology of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Cognition and Emotion, 23, 4-41.
115. Krompinger, J.W., Moser, J.S., & Simons, R.F. (2008). Modulations of the electrophysiological response to pleasant stimuli by cognitive reappraisal. Emotion, 8, 132-137.
116. Kross, E., & Ayduk, O. (2008). Facilitating adaptive emotional analysis: Distinguishing distanced-analysis of depressive experiences from immersed-analysis and distraction. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 924-938.
117. Kross, E., Ayduk, O., & Mischel, W. (2005). When asking why does not hurt: Distinguishing rumination from reflexive processing of negative emotions. Psychological Science, 16, 709-715.
118. Kryla-Lighthall, N., & Mather, M. (2009). The role of cognitive control in older adults' emotional well-being. In V. Bengtson, D. Gans, N. Putney, & M. Silverstein (Eds.), Handbook of theories of aging (2nd ed., pp. 323-344). New York: Springer.
119. La Monica, E. (1981). Construct validity of an empathy instrument. Research in Nursing Health, 4, 389-400.
120. Larsen, R.J. (2000). Toward a science of mood regulation. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 129-141.
121. Lazarus, R.S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer.
122. Leckie, M.S., & Thompson, E. (1979). Symptoms of Stress Inventory. Seattle: University of Washington.
123. Liebowitz, M.R. (1987). Social phobia. Modern Problems of Pharmacopsychiatry, 22, 141-173.
124. Lovibond, S.H., & Lovibond, P.F. (1995). Manual for the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (2nd ed.). Sydney: Psychology Foundation of Australia.
125. Lutz, A., Brefczynski-Lewis, J., Johnstone, T., & Davidson, R.J. (2008a). Regulation of the neural circuitry of emotion by compassion meditation: Effects of meditative expertise. PLoS ONE, 3, e1897.
126. Lutz, A., Greischar, L., Rawlings, N.B., Richard, M., & Davidson, R.J. (2004). Long-term meditators self-induce high-amplitude synchrony during mental practice. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 101, 16369-16373.
127. Lutz, A., Slagter, H.A., Dunne, J., & Davidson, R.J. (2008b). Attention regulation and monitoring in meditation. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12, 163-169.
128. Lyubomirsky, S., Sheldon, K.M., & Schkade, D. (2005). Pursuing happiness: The architecture of sustainable change. Review of General Psychology, 9, 111-131.
129. MacLeod, C., Mathews, A., & Tata, P. (1986). Attentional bias in emotional disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95, 15-20.
130. MacLeod, C., Rutherford, E., Campbell, L., Ebsworthy, G., & Holker, L. (2002). Selective attention and emotional vulnerability: Assessing the causal basis of their association through the experimental manipulation of attention bias. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 107-123.
131. Mather, M., & Knight, M. (2005). Goal-directed memory: The role of cognitive control in older adults' emotional memory. Psychology and Aging, 20, 554-570.
132. Mathews, A., Mogg, K., & Kentish, J. (1995). Effect of psychological treatment on cognitive bias in generalized anxiety disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 293-303.
133. Mathews, A., Ridgeway, V., & Williamson, D.A. (1996). Evidence for attention to threatening stimuli in depression. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 34, 695-705.
134. Mauss, I.B., Bunge, S.A., & Gross, J.J. (2007). Automatic emotion regulation. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 1, 146-167.
135. Mauss, I.B., Cook, C.L., & Gross, J.J. (2007). Automatic emotion regulation during anger provocation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43, 698-711.
136. McDowd, J.M., & Shaw, R.J. (2000). Attention and aging: A functional perspective. In F. I. M. Craik & T. A. Salthouse (Eds.), The handbook of aging and cognition (2nd ed., pp. 221-292). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
137. McLaughlin, K.A., Mennin, D.S., & Farach, F.J. (2007). The contributory role of worry in emotion generation and dysregulation in generalized anxiety disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 1735-1752.
138. McNair, D.M., Lorr, M., & Dropleman, L. (1992). Manual for the profile of mood states. San Diego, CA: Educational and Industrial Testing Service.
139. Meyer, T.J., Miller, M.L., Metzger, R.L., & Borkovec, T.D. (1990). Development and validation of the Penn State Worry Questionnaire. Behavior Research and Therapy, 28, 487-495.
140. Mogg, K., Mathews, A., & Eysenck, M. (1992). Attentional bias to threat in clinical anxiety states. Cognition and Emotion, 6, 149-159.
141. Mogg, K., Millar, N., & Bradley, B.P. (2002). Biases in eye movements to threatening facial expressions in generalized anxiety and depressive disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 695-704.
142. Mohlman, J. (2004). Attention training as an intervention for anxiety: Review and rationale. Behavior Therapist, 27, 37-41.
143. Monk, C.S., Nelson, E.E., Woldehawariat, G., Montgomery, L.A., Zarahn, E., McClure, E.B.,et al.(2004). Evidence-dependent plasticity for attention to threat: Behavioral and neurophysiological evidence in humans. Biological Psychiatry, 56, 607-610.
144. Müller, M.M., Malinowski, P., Gruber, T., & Hillyard, S.A. (2000). Sustained division of the attentional spotlight. Nature, 424, 309-312.
145. Newman, S.D., Keller, T.A., & Just, M.A. (2007). Volitional control of attention and brain activation in dual task performance. Human Brain Mapping, 28, 109-117.
146. Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Morrow, J. (1991). A prospective study of depression and post-traumatic stress symptoms after a natural disaster: The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 115-121.
147. Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Morrow, J. (1993). Effects of rumination and distraction on naturally occurring depressed mood. Cognition and Emotion, 76, 561-570.
148. Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Morrow, J., & Fredrickson, B.L. (1993). Response styles and the duration of episodes of depressed mood. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 20-28.
149. Norman, D.A., & Shallice, T. (1986). Attention to action: Willed and automatic control of behavior. In R. J. Davidson, G. E. Schwartz, & D. Shapiro (Eds.), Consciousness and self-regulation: Advances in research and theory (pp. 1-18). New York: Plenum.
150. Novaco, R.W. (1975). Anger control: The development of an experimental treatment. Lexington, KY: Lexington.
151. Ochsner, K.N., & Gross, J.J. (2005). The cognitive control of emotion. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9, 242-249.
152. Ochsner, K.N., & Gross, J.J. (2008). Cognitive emotion regulation: Insights from social cognitive and affective neuroscience. Currents Directions in Psychological Science, 17(1), 153-158.
153. Papageorgiou, C., & Wells, A. (1998). Effects of attention training on hypochondriacs: A brief case series. Psychological Medicine, 28, 193-200.
154. Papageorgiou, C., & Wells, A. (2000). Treatment of recurrent major depression with attention training. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 7, 407-413.
155. Parkhurst, D., Law, K., & Niebur, E. (2002). Modeling the role of salience in the allocation of overt visual attention. Vision Research, 42, 107-123.
156. Pashler, H., Johnston, J.C., & Ruthruff, E. (2001). Attention and performance. Annual Reviews of Psychology, 52, 629-651.
157. Polk, T.A., & Farah, M.J. (1995). Late experience alters vision. Nature, 376, 648-649.
158. Posner, M.I. (1980). Orienting of attention. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 32, 3-25.
159. Posner, M.I., & Petersen, S.E. (1990). The attention system of the human brain. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 13, 25-42.
160. Posner, M.I., Sheese, B.E., Odludas, Y., & Tang, Y. (2006). Analyzing and shaping human attentional networks. Neural Networks, 19, 1422-1429.
161. Radloff, L.S. (1977). The CES-D Scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385-401.
162. Ramel, W., Goldin, P.R., Carmona, P.E., & McQuaid, J.R. (2004). The effects of mindfulness meditation on cognitive processes and affect in patients with past depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 28, 433-455.
163. Raz, A., & Buhle, J. (2006). Typologies of attentional networks. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 7, 367-379.
164. Reiss, S., Peterson, R.P., Gursky, D.M., & McNally, R.J. (1986). Anxiety sensitivity, anxiety frequency, and the predication of fearlessness. Behavior Research and Therapy, 24, 1-8.
165. Richards, J.M., & Gross, J.J. (2000). Emotion regulation and memory: The cognitive costs of keeping one's cool. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 410-424.
166. Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
167. Rosenzweig, S., Reibel, D., Greeson, J.M., Brainard, G.C., & Hojat, M. (2003). Mindfulness-based stress reduction lowers psychological distress in medical students. Teaching and Learning in Medicine, 15, 88-92.
168. Rothbart, M.K., Ziaie, H., & O'Boyle, C.G. (1992). Self-regulation and emotion in infancy. In N. Eisenberg & R. A. Fabes (Eds.), Emotion and its regulation in early development (pp. 7-23). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
169. Rowe, G., Hirsh, J.B., & Anderson, A.K. (2008). Positive affect increases the breadth of attentional selection. PNAS, 104, 383-388.
170. Rueda, M.R., Posner, M.I., & Rothbart, M.K. (2004). Attentional control and self-regulation. In R. F. Baumeister & K. D. Vohls (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications (pp. 283-300). New York: Guilford.
171. Rueda, M.R., Rothbart, M.K., Saccomanno, L., & Posner, M.I. (2007). Modifying brain networks underlying self-regulation. In D. Romer & E. F. Walker (Eds.), Adolescent psychopathology and the developing brain: Integrating brain and prevention science (pp. 401-419). New York: Oxford University Press.
172. Ryff, C.D., & Keyes, C.L.M. (1995). The structure of psychological well-being revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 719-727.
173. Sarter, N.B., Mumaw, R.J., & Wickens, C.D. (2007). Pilots' monitoring strategies and performance on automated flight decks: An empirical study combining behavioral and eye-tracking data. Human Factors, 49, 347-357.
174. Scheier, M.F., Carver, C.S., & Bridges, M.W. (1994). Distinguishing optimism from neuroticism (and trait anxiety, self-mastery, and self-esteem): A re-evaluation of the Life Orientation Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 1063-1078.
175. Schmidt, N.B., Richey, J.A., Buckner, J.D., & Timpano, K.R. (2009). Attention training for generalized social anxiety disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118, 5-14.
176. Schutte, N.S., Manes, R.R., & Malouff, J.M. (2009). Antecedent-focused emotion regulation, response modulation and well-being. Current Psychology, 28, 21-31.
177. Schwartz, R.M. (1997). Consider the simple screw: Cognitive science, quality improvement, and psychotherapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 970-983.
178. Schwartz, R.M., Reynolds, C.F., III, Thase, M.E., Frank, E., Fasiczka, A.L., & Haaga, D.A.F. (2002). Optimal and normal affect balance in psychotherapy of major depression: Evaluation of the balanced states of mind model. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 30, 439-450.
179. Schwarz, N. (1990). Feelings as information: Informational and motivational functions of affective states. In E. T. Higgins & R. M. Sorrentino (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior (pp. 527-562). New York: Guilford.
180. Segal, Z.V., Williams, J.M.G., & Teasdale, J.D. (2002). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression: A new approach to preventing relapse. New York: Guilford.
181. Shapiro, S.L., Carlson, L.E., Astin, J.A., & Freedman, B. (2006). Mechanisms of mindfulness. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62, 373-386.
182. Shapiro, S.L., Oman, D., Thoresen, C.E., Plante, T.G., & Flinders, T. (2008). Cultivating mindfulness: Effects on well-being. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 64, 840-862.
183. Shapiro, S.L., Schwartz, G.E., & Bonner, G. (1998). Effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction on medical and premedical students. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 21, 581-599.
184. Sheppes, G., Catran, E., & Meiran, N. (2009). Reappraisal (but not distraction) is going to make you sweat: Physiological evidence for self-control effort. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 71, 91-96.
185. Sheppes, G., & Meiran, N. (2007). Better late than never? On the dynamics of online regulation of sadness using distraction and cognitive reappraisal. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33, 1518-1532.
186. Sheppes, G., & Meiran, N. (2008). Divergent cognitive costs for online forms of reappraisal and distraction. Emotion, 8, 870-874.
187. Shiffrin, R. M., & Dumais, S. T. (1981). The development of automatism. In J. Anderson (Ed.), Cognitive skills and their acquisition (pp. 111-140). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
188. Siegle, G.J., Ghinassi, F., & Thase, M.E. (2007). Neurobehavioral therapies in the 21st century: Summary of an emerging field and an extended example of cognitive control training for depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 31, 235-262.
189. Slagter, H.A., Giesbrecht, B., Kok, A., Weissman, D.H., Kenemans, J.L., Woldorff, M.G.,et al.(2007). fMRI evidence for both generalized and specialized components of attentional control. Brain Research, 1177, 90-102.
190. Spielberger, C.D., Gorsuch, R.L., & Lushene, R.E. (1970). Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
191. Street, L.L., & Barlow, D.H. (1994). Anxiety disorders. In L. W. Craighead, W. E. Craighead, A. E. Kazdin, & M. J. Mahoney (Eds.), Cognitive and behavioral interventions: An empirical approach to mental health problems (pp. 71-87). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
192. Sukhodolksy, D.G., Golub, A., & Cromwell, E.N. (2001). Development and validation of the anger rumination scale. Personality and Individual Differences, 31, 689-700.
193. Tallis, F., Eysenck, M.W., & Mathews, A. (1992). A questionnaire for the measurement of nonpathological worry. Personality and Individual Differences, 13, 161-168.
194. Tamir, M. (2009). What do people want to feel and why? Pleasure and utility in emotion regulation. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 101-105.
195. Tamir, M., Chiu, C.Y., & Gross, J.J. (2007). Business or pleasure? Utilitarian versus hedonic considerations in emotion regulation. Emotion, 7, 546-554.
196. Tamir, M., & Robinson, M.D. (2007). The happy spotlight: Positive mood and selective attention to rewarding information. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33, 1124-1136.
197. Tamir, M., Robinson, M.D., & Clore, G.L. (2002). The epistemic benefits of trait-consistent mood states: An analysis of extraversion and mood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 663-677.
198. Tan, Y.Y., Ma, Y., Wang, J., Fan, Y., Feng, S., Lu, Q.,et al.(2007). Short-term meditation training improves attention and self-regulation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104, 17152-17156.
199. Tang, Y.Y., & Posner, M.I. (2009). Attention training and attention state training. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13, 222-227.
200. Teasdale, J.D., Segal, Z.V., Williams, J.M.G., Ridgeway, V.A., Soulsby, J.M., & Lau, M.A. (2000). Prevention of relapse/ recurrence in major depression by mindfulness-based cognitive therapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 615-623.
201. Trapnell, P.D., & Campbell, J.D. (1999). Private self-consciousness and the five-factor model of personality: Distinguishing rumination from reflection. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 284-304.
202. Treisman, A. (2006). How the deployment of attention determines what we see. Visual Cognition, 14, 411-443.
203. Turner, S.M., Johnson, M.R., Beidel, D.C., Heiser, N.A., & Lydiard, R.B. (2003). The Social Thoughts and Belief Scale: A new inventory for assessing cognitions in social phobia. Psychological Assessment, 15, 384-391.
204. Urry, H.L. (2010). Seeing, thinking, and feeling: Emotion-regulating effects of gaze-directed cognitive reappraisal. Emotion, 10, 125-35.
205. Urry, H.L., Nitschke, J.B., Dolski, I., Jackson, D.C., Dalton, K.M., Mueller, C.J.,et al.(2004). Making a life worth living: Neural correlates of well-being. Psychological Science, 15, 367-372.
206. van Reekum, C.M., Urry, H.L., Johnstone, T., Thurow, M.E., Frye, C.J., Jackson, C.A.,et al.(2007). Individual differences in amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex activity are associated with evaluation speed and psychological well-being. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 19, 237-248.
207. Vidnyánszky, Z., & Sohn, W. (2005). Learning to suppress task-irrelevant visual stimuli with attention. Vision Research, 45, 677-685.
208. Wadlinger, H.A., & Isaacowitz, D.M. (2006). Positive mood broadens visual attention to positive stimuli. Motivation and Emotion, 30, 89-101.
209. Wadlinger, H.A., & Isaacowitz, D.M. (2008). Looking happy: The experimental manipulation of a positive visual attention bias. Emotion, 8, 121-126.
210. Wallace, B.A. (1999). The Buddhist tradition of Samatha: Methods for refining and examining consciousness. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 6, 175-187.
211. Washburn, D.A., & Putney, R.T. (2001). Attention and task difficulty: When is performance facilitated? Learning and Motivation, 32, 36-47.
212. Watson, C., & Purdon, C. (2008). Attention training in the reduction and reappraisal of intrusive thoughts. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 36, 61-70.
213. Watson, D., Clark, L.A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063-1070.
214. Watson, D., Wiese, D., Vaidya, J., & Tellegen, A. (1999). The two general activation systems of affect: Structural findings, evolutionary considerations, and psychobiological evidence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 820-838.
215. Wegener, D.T., & Petty, R.E. (1994). Mood management across affective states: The hedonic contingency hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 1034-1048.
216. Wegner, D.M., & Bargh, J.A. (1998). Control and automaticity in social life. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (Vols. 1-2, 4th ed., pp. 446-496). New York: McGraw-Hill.
217. Wells, A. (1990). Panic disorder in association with relaxation induced anxiety: An attentional training approach to treatment. Behavior Therapy, 21, 273-280.
218. Wells, A., & Mathews, G. (1996). Modeling cognition in emotional disorder: The S-REF model. Behavior Research and Therapy, 34, 881-888.
219. Wells, A., White, J., & Carter, K. (1997). Attention training: Effects on anxiety and beliefs in panic and social phobia. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 4, 226-232.
220. Wenzlaff, R.M., & Bates, D.E. (2000). The relative efficacy of concentration and suppression strategies of mental control. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 1200-1212.
221. Wilhelm, F.H., Pfaltz, M.C., Gross, J.J., Mauss, I.B., Kim, S.I., & Wiederhold, B.K. (2005). Mechanisms of virtual reality exposure therapy: The role of the behavioral activation and behavioral inhibition systems. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 30, 271-284.
222. Xing, C., & Isaacowitz, D.M. (2006). Aiming at happiness: How motivation affects attention to and memory for emotional images. Motivation and Emotion, 30, 249-256.
223. Yesavage, J.A., Brink, T.L., Rose, T.L., Lum, O., Huang, V., Adey, M.B.,et al.(1983). Development and validation of a geriatric depression screen scale: A preliminary report. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 17, 37-49.