Immunomodulatory effects of macrolide antibiotics - Part 2: Advantages and disadvantages of long-term, low-dose macrolide therapy

Respiration

Volumn 81, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 75-87

  Altenburg, J ^a   De Graaff, C S ^a   Van Der Werf, T S ^b   Boersma, W G ^a  

^a Location Alkmaar   (Netherlands)

^b UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER GRONINGEN   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Cystic fibrosis; Diffuse panbronchiolitis; Macrolides

Indexed keywords

AMOXICILLIN PLUS CLAVULANIC ACID; AZITHROMYCIN; CLARITHROMYCIN; CORTICOSTEROID; ERYTHROMYCIN; METHYLPREDNISOLONE; OLEANDOMYCIN; PLACEBO; PREDNISONE; QUINOLONE; ROXITHROMYCIN; TROLEANDOMYCIN;

ADD ON THERAPY; ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; ANTIBIOTIC THERAPY; ASTHMA; BRONCHIECTASIS; BRONCHIOLITIS OBLITERANS ORGANIZING PNEUMONIA; CHLAMYDIASIS; CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE LUNG DISEASE; CHRONIC SINUSITIS; CYSTIC FIBROSIS; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG INDUCED HEADACHE; DRUG MEGADOSE; DRUG SUBSTITUTION; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; EAR NOSE THROAT DISEASE; EPIDEMIOLOGICAL DATA; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; HEARING IMPAIRMENT; HEART ARRHYTHMIA; HUMAN; IMMUNOMODULATION; LOW DRUG DOSE; MAINTENANCE THERAPY; MONOTHERAPY; MYCOPLASMOSIS; NEUTROPENIA; NONHUMAN; OTOTOXICITY; POLYMORPHIC VENTRICULAR TACHYCARDIA; PRIORITY JOURNAL; QT PROLONGATION; RASH; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; TINNITUS; TREATMENT DURATION; TREATMENT WITHDRAWAL; URTICARIA;

ANTI-BACTERIAL AGENTS; ANTI-INFLAMMATORY AGENTS; ARRHYTHMIAS, CARDIAC; BACTERIAL INFECTIONS; CHRONIC DISEASE; DRUG ADMINISTRATION SCHEDULE; DRUG DOSAGE CALCULATIONS; DRUG RESISTANCE, BACTERIAL; GASTROINTESTINAL DISEASES; HUMANS; LONG-TERM CARE; MACROLIDES; PATIENT SELECTION; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIALS AS TOPIC; RESPIRATORY TRACT DISEASES; TIME;

EID: 78650513682     PISSN: 00257931     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1159/000320320     Document Type: Review

References (147)

1. Kudoh S, Uetake T, Hagiwara K: Clinical effects of low-dose long-term erythromycin chemotherapy on diffuse panbronchiolitis (in Japanese). Nihon Kyobu Shikkan Gakkai Zasshi 1987;25:632-642.
2. Kudoh S, Azuma A, Yamamoto M: Improvement of survival in patients with diffuse panbronchiolitis treated with low-dose erythromycin. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998;157:1829-1832.
3. Martinez FJ, Simon RH: Clinical implications of macrolide therapy in chronic sinopulmonary diseases. Curr Pharm Des 2004;10:3095-3110.
4. Poletti V, Casoni G, Chilosi M: Diffuse panbronchiolitis. Eur Respir J 2006;28:862-871.
5. Sakito O, Kadota J, Kohno S: Interleukin 1 beta, tumor necrosis factor alpha, and interleukin 8 in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of patients with diffuse panbronchiolitis: a potential mechanism of macrolide therapy. Respiration 1996;63:42-48.
6. Homma H, Yamanaka A, Tanimoto S: Diffuse panbronchiolitis: a disease of the transitional zone of the lung. Chest 1983;83:63-69.
7. Sugiyama Y, Kudoh S, Maeda H: Analysis of HLA antigens in patients with diffuse panbronchiolitis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990;141:1459-1462.
8. Fujii T, Kadota J, Kawakami K: Long term effect of erythromycin therapy in patients with chronic Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection. Thorax 1995;50:1246-1252.
9. Nagai H, Shishido H, Yoneda R: Long-term low-dose administration of erythromycin to patients with diffuse panbronchiolitis. Respiration 1991;58:145-149.
10. Tateda K, Ishii Y, Kimura S: Suppression of Pseudomonas aeruginosa quorum-sensing systems by macrolides: a promising strategy or an oriental mystery? J Infect Chemother 2007;13:357-367.
11. Nakamura H, Fujishima S, Inoue T: Clinical and immunoregulatory effects of roxithromycin therapy for chronic respiratory tract infection. Eur Respir J 1999;13:1371-1379.
12. Hiratsuka T, Mukae H, Iiboshi H: Increased concentrations of human beta-defensins in plasma and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of patients with diffuse panbronchiolitis. Thorax 2003;58:425-430.
13. Ichimiya T, Takeoka K, Hiramatsu K: The influence of azithromycin on the biofilm formation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in vitro. Chemotherapy 1996;42:186-191.
14. Kondoh K, Hashiba M, Baba S: Inhibitory activity of clarithromycin on biofilm synthesis with Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Acta Otolaryngol Suppl 1996;525:56-60.
15. Ichimiya T, Yamasaki T, Nasu M: In-vitro effects of antimicrobial agents on Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm formation. J Antimicrob Chemother 1994;34:331-341.
16. Takeoka K, Ichimiya T, Yamasaki T: The in vitro effect of macrolides on the interaction of human polymorphonuclear leukocytes with Pseudomonas aeruginosa in biofilm. Chemotherapy 1998;44:190-197.
17. Bilton D: Update on non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis. Curr Opin Pulm Med 2008;14:595-599.
18. Clement A, Tamalet A, Leroux E: Long term effects of azithromycin in patients with cystic fibrosis: a double blind, placebo controlled trial. Thorax 2006;61:895-902.
19. Equi A, Balfour-Lynn IM, Bush A: Long term azithromycin in children with cystic fibrosis: a randomised, placebo-controlled crossover trial. Lancet 2002;360:978-984.
20. Saiman L, Marshall BC, Mayer-Hamblett N: Azithromycin in patients with cystic fibrosis chronically infected with Pseudomonas aeruginosa: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2003;290:1749-1756.
21. Wolter J, Seeney S, Bell S: Effect of long term treatment with azithromycin on disease parameters in cystic fibrosis: a randomised trial. Thorax 2002;57:212-216.
22. McCormack J, Bell S, Senini S: Daily versus weekly azithromycin in cystic fibrosis patients. Eur Respir J 2007;30:487-495.
23. Courtney JM, Bradley J, McCaughan J: Predictors of mortality in adults with cystic fibrosis. Pediatr Pulmonol 2007;42:525-532.
24. Navarro J, Rainisio M, Harms HK: Factors associated with poor pulmonary function: cross-sectional analysis of data from the ERCF. European Epidemiologic Registry of Cystic Fibrosis. Eur Respir J 2001;18:298-305.
25. Saiman L, Anstead M, Mayer-Hamblett N: Effect of azithromycin on pulmonary function in patients with cystic fibrosis uninfected with Pseudomonas aeruginosa: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2010;303:1707-1715.
26. Bush A, Rubin BK: Macrolides as biological response modifiers in cystic fibrosis and bronchiectasis. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2003;24:737-748.
27. Giamarellos-Bourboulis EJ: Macrolides beyond the conventional antimicrobials: a class of potent immunomodulators. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2008;31:12-20.
28. Healy DP: Macrolide immunomodulation of chronic respiratory diseases. Curr Infect Dis Rep 2007;9:7-13.
29. Idris SF, Chilvers ER, Haworth C: Azithromycin therapy for neutrophilic airways disease: myth or magic? Thorax 2009;64:186-189.
30. Tamaoki J: The effects of macrolides on inflammatory cells. Chest 2004;125:41S-50S.
31. Cole PJ: Inflammation: a two-edged sword - the model of bronchiectasis. Eur J Respir Dis Suppl 1986;147:6-15.
32. Hanania NA: Targeting airway inflammation in asthma: current and future therapies. Chest 2008;133:989-998.
33. Seemungal TA, Wilkinson TM, Hurst JR: Long-term erythromycin therapy is associated with decreased chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbations. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008;178:1139-1147.
34. Altenburg J, de Graaff CS, van der Werf TS, Boersma WG: Immunomodulatory effects of macrolide antibiotics - part 1: biological mechanisms. Respiration 2011;81:67-74.
35. Ray WA, Murray KT, Meredith S: Oral erythromycin and the risk of sudden death from cardiac causes. N Engl J Med 2004;351:1089-1096.
36. Wallace MR, Miller LK, Nguyen MT: Ototoxicity with azithromycin. Lancet 1994;343:241.
37. Nicotra MB: Bronchiectasis. Semin Respir Infect 1994;9:31-40.
38. van Haren EH, Mannes GP: Diagnosis and treatment of bronchiectasis (in Dutch). Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd 2004;148:120-125.
39. Cohen M, Sahn SA: Bronchiectasis in systemic diseases. Chest 1999;116:1063-1074.
40. Barker AF: Bronchiectasis. N Engl J Med 2002;346:1383-1393.
41. Pasteur MC, Helliwell SM, Houghton SJ: An investigation into causative factors in patients with bronchiectasis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000;162:1277-1284.
42. Suhs RH, Dowling HF, Jackson GG: Hypogammaglobulinemia with chronic bronchitis or bronchiectasis: treatment of five patients with long-term antibiotic therapy. Arch Intern Med 1965;116:29-38.
43. Koh YY, Lee MH, Sun YH: Effect of roxithromycin on airway responsiveness in children with bronchiectasis: a double-blind, placebocontrolled study. Eur Respir J 1997;10:994-999.
44. Tsang KW, Ho PI, Chan KN: A pilot study of low-dose erythromycin in bronchiectasis. Eur Respir J 1999;13:361-364.
45. Yalcin E, Kiper N, Ozcelik U: Effects of claritromycin on inflammatory parameters and clinical conditions in children with bronchiectasis. J Clin Pharm Ther 2006;31:49-55.
46. Cymbala AA, Edmonds LC, Bauer MA: The disease-modifying effects of twice-weekly oral azithromycin in patients with bronchiectasis. Treat Respir Med 2005;4:117-122.
47. Davies G, Wilson R: Prophylactic antibiotic treatment of bronchiectasis with azithromycin. Thorax 2004;59:540-541.
48. National Collaborating Centre for Chronic Conditions: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: National clinical guideline on management of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in adults in primary and secondary care. Thorax 2004;59(suppl 1):1-232.
49. Siempos II, Dimopoulos G, Korbila IP: Macrolides, quinolones and amoxicillin/clavulanate for chronic bronchitis: a meta-analysis. Eur Respir J 2007;29:1127-1137.
50. Black P, Staykova T, Chacko E: Prophylactic antibiotic therapy for chronic bronchitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2003; CD004105.
51. Banerjee D, Khair OA, Honeybourne D: The effect of oral clarithromycin on health status and sputum bacteriology in stable COPD. Respir Med 2005;99:208-215.
52. Macrolide Azithromycin to Prevent Rapid Worsening of Symptoms Associated With Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. http://clinicaltrials.gov (identifier: NCT00325897).
53. Kunisaki KM, Niewoehner DE: Antibiotic prophylaxis for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: resurrecting an old idea. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008;178:1098-1099.
54. Desrosiers MY, Kilty SJ: Treatment alternatives for chronic rhinosinusitis persisting after ESS: what to do when antibiotics, steroids and surgery fail. Rhinology 2008;46:3-14.
55. Hashiba M, Baba S: Efficacy of long-term administration of clarithromycin in the treatment of intractable chronic sinusitis. Acta Otolaryngol Suppl 1996;525:73-78.
56. Kimura N, Nishioka K, Nishizaki K: Clinical effect of low-dose, long-term roxithromycin chemotherapy in patients with chronic sinusitis. Acta Med Okayama 1997;51:33-37.
57. Suzuki H, Shimomura A, Ikeda K: Effects of long-term low-dose macrolide administration on neutrophil recruitment and IL-8 in the nasal discharge of chronic sinusitis patients. Tohoku J Exp Med 1997;182:115-124.
58. Cervin A, Wallwork B: Anti-inflammatory effects of macrolide antibiotics in the treatment of chronic rhinosinusitis. Otolaryngol Clin North Am 2005;38:1339-1350.
59. Yamada T, Fujieda S, Mori S: Macrolide treatment decreased the size of nasal polyps and IL-8 levels in nasal lavage. Am J Rhinol 2000;14:143-148.
60. Wallwork B, Coman W, Mackay-Sim A: A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of macrolide in the treatment of chronic rhinosinusitis. Laryngoscope 2006;116:189-193.
61. Cervin A, Kalm O, Sandkull P: One-year low-dose erythromycin treatment of persistent chronic sinusitis after sinus surgery: clinical outcome and effects on mucociliary parameters and nasal nitric oxide. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2002;126:481-489.
62. Suzuki H, Ikeda K, Honma R: Prognostic factors of chronic rhinosinusitis under longterm low-dose macrolide therapy. ORL J Otorhinolaryngol Relat Spec 2000;62:121-127.
63. Chapman ID, Foster A, Morley J: The relationship between inflammation and hyperreactivity of the airways in asthma. Clin Exp Allergy 1993;23:168-171.
64. Jeffery PK: Remodeling in asthma and chronic obstructive lung disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001;164: S28-S38.
65. Amayasu H, Yoshida S, Ebana S: Clarithromycin suppresses bronchial hyperresponsiveness associated with eosinophilic inflammation in patients with asthma. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2000;84:594-598.
66. Beigelman A, Gunsten S, Mikols CL: Azithromycin attenuates airway inflammation in a noninfectious mouse model of allergic asthma. Chest 2009;136:498-506.
67. Ekici A, Ekici M, Erdemoglu AK: Effect of azithromycin on the severity of bronchial hyperresponsiveness in patients with mild asthma. J Asthma 2002;39:181-185.
68. Kamoi H, Kurihara N, Fujiwara H: The macrolide antibacterial roxithromycin reduces bronchial hyperresponsiveness and superoxide anion production by polymorphonuclear leukocytes in patients with asthma. J Asthma 1995;32:191-197.
69. Miyatake H, Taki F, Taniguchi H: Erythromycin reduces the severity of bronchial hyperresponsiveness in asthma. Chest 1991;99:670-673.
70. Shimizu T, Kato M, Mochizuki H: Roxithromycin reduces the degree of bronchial hyperresponsiveness in children with asthma. Chest 1994;106:458-461.
71. Takizawa H, Desaki M, Ohtoshi T: Erythromycin and clarithromycin attenuate cytokineinduced endothelin-1 expression in human bronchial epithelial cells. Eur Respir J 1998;12:57-63.
72. Spector SL: Troleandomycin: effectiveness in steroid dependent asthma and bronchitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1974;54:367-379.
73. Szefler SJ, Rose JQ, Ellis EF: The effect of troleandomycin on methylprednisolone elimination. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1980;66:447-451.
74. Hill JM, Tattersfield AE: Corticosteroid sparing agents in asthma. Thorax 1995;50:577-582.
75. Szefler SJ, Brenner M, Jusko WJ: Dose-and time-related effect of troleandomycin on methylprednisolone elimination. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1982;32:166-171.
76. Zeiger RS, Schatz M, Sperling W: Efficacy of troleandomycin in outpatients with severe, corticosteroid-dependent asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1980;66:438-446.
77. Wald JA, Friedman BF, Farr RS: An improved protocol for the use of troleandomycin (TAO) in the treatment of steroid-requiring asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1986;78:36-43.
78. Harris R, German D: The incidence of corticosteroid side effects in chronic steroid-dependent asthmatics on TAO (troleandomycin) and methylprednisolone. Ann Allergy 1989;63:110-111.
79. Ball BD, Hill MR, Brenner M: Effect of lowdose troleandomycin on glucocorticoid pharmacokinetics and airway hyperresponsiveness in severely asthmatic children. Ann Allergy 1990;65:37-45.
80. Kamada AK, Hill MR, Ikle DN: Efficacy and safety of low-dose troleandomycin therapy in children with severe, steroid-requiring asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1993;91:873-882.
81. Nelson HS, Hamilos DL, Corsello PR: A double-blind study of troleandomycin and methylprednisolone in asthmatic subjects who require daily corticosteroids. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993;147:398-404.
82. Evans DJ, Cullinan P, Geddes DM: Troleandomycin as an oral corticosteroid steroid sparing agent in stable asthma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2001; CD002987.
83. Garey KW, Rubinstein I, Gotfried MH: Long-term clarithromycin decreases prednisone requirements in elderly patients with prednisone-dependent asthma. Chest 2000;118:1826-1827.
84. Sutherland ER, Martin RJ: Asthma and atypical bacterial infection. Chest 2007;132:1962-1966.
85. Martin RJ, Kraft M, Chu HW: A link between chronic asthma and chronic infection. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2001;107:595-601.
86. Berkovich S, Millian SJ, Snyder RD: The association of viral and mycoplasma infections with recurrence of wheezing in the asthmatic child. Ann Allergy 1970;28:43-49.
87. Lieberman D, Lieberman D, Printz S: Atypical pathogen infection in adults with acute exacerbation of bronchial asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2003;167:406-410.
88. Seggev JS, Lis I, Siman-Tov R: Mycoplasma pneumoniae is a frequent cause of exacerbation of bronchial asthma in adults. Ann Allergy 1986;57:263-265.
89. Black PN, Scicchitano R, Jenkins CR: Serological evidence of infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae is related to the severity of asthma. Eur Respir J 2000;15:254-259.
90. Cook PJ, Davies P, Tunnicliffe W: Chlamydia pneumoniae and asthma. Thorax 1998;53:254-259.
91. Cunningham AF, Johnston SL, Julious SA: Chronic Chlamydia pneumoniae infection and asthma exacerbations in children. Eur Respir J 1998;11:345-349.
92. Mok JY, Waugh PR, Simpson H: Mycoplasma pneumonia infection: a follow-up study of 50 children with respiratory illness. Arch Dis Child 1979;54:506-511.
93. Sabato AR, Martin AJ, Marmion BP: Mycoplasma pneumoniae: acute illness, antibiotics, and subsequent pulmonary function. Arch Dis Child 1984;59:1034-1037.
94. Kraft M, Cassell GH, Pak J: Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Chlamydia pneumoniae in asthma: effect of clarithromycin. Chest 2002;121:1782-1788.
95. Black PN, Blasi F, Jenkins CR: Trial of roxithromycin in subjects with asthma and serological evidence of infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001;164:536-541.
96. Hahn DL, Plane MB, Mahdi OS: Secondary outcomes of a pilot randomized trial of azithromycin treatment for asthma. PLoS Clin Trials 2006;1: e11.
97. Richeldi L, Ferrara G, Fabbri LM: Macrolides for chronic asthma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2005; CD002997.
98. Piacentini GL, Peroni DG, Bodini A: Azithromycin reduces bronchial hyperresponsiveness and neutrophilic airway inflammation in asthmatic children: a preliminary report. Allergy Asthma Proc 2007;28:194-198.
99. Simpson JL, Powell H, Boyle MJ: Clarithromycin targets neutrophilic airway inflammation in refractory asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008;177:148-155.
100. Cordier JF: Organising pneumonia. Thorax 2000;55:318-328.
101. Ichikawa Y, Ninomiya H, Katsuki M: Lowdose/long-term erythromycin for treatment of bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia (BOOP). Kurume Med J 1993;40:65-67.
102. Stover DE, Mangino D: Macrolides: a treatment alternative for bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia? Chest 2005;128:3611-3617.
103. Hotta M: Neutrophil chemotactic activity in cryptogenic organizing pneumonia and the response to erythromycin. Kurume Med J 1996;43:207-217.
104. Periti P, Mazzei T, Mini E: Adverse effects of macrolide antibacterials. Drug Saf 1993;9:346-364.
105. Principi N, Esposito S: Comparative tolerability of erythromycin and newer macrolide antibacterials in paediatric patients. Drug Saf 1999;20:25-41.
106. Rubinstein E: Comparative safety of the different macrolides. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2001;18(suppl 1): S71-S76.
107. Brown BA, Griffith DE, Girard W: Relationship of adverse events to serum drug levels in patients receiving high-dose azithromycin for mycobacterial lung disease. Clin Infect Dis 1997;24:958-964.
108. McGhan LJ, Merchant SN: Erythromycin ototoxicity. Otol Neurotol 2003;24:701-702.
109. Sacristan JA, Soto JA, de Cos MA: Erythromycininduced hypoacusis: 11 new cases and literature review. Ann Pharmacother 1993;27:950-955.
110. Swanson DJ, Sung RJ, Fine MJ: Erythromycin ototoxicity: prospective assessment with serum concentrations and audiograms in a study of patients with pneumonia. Am J Med 1992;92:61-68.
111. Uzun C, Koten M, Adali MK: Reversible ototoxic effect of azithromycin and clarithromycin on transiently evoked otoacoustic emissions in guinea pigs. J Laryngol Otol 2001;115:622-628.
112. Haydon RC, Thelin JW, Davis WE: Erythromycin ototoxicity: analysis and conclusions based on 22 case reports. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1984;92:678-684.
113. Tseng AL, Dolovich L, Salit IE: Azithromycinrelated ototoxicity in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Infect Dis 1997;24:76-77.
114. Simko J, Csilek A, Karaszi J: Proarrhythmic potential of antimicrobial agents. Infection 2008;36:194-206.
115. Owens RC Jr, Nolin TD: Antimicrobial-associated QT interval prolongation: pointes of interest. Clin Infect Dis 2006;43:1603-1611.
116. Volberg WA, Koci BJ, Su W: Blockade of human cardiac potassium channel human ether-a-go-go-related gene (HERG) by macrolide antibiotics. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2002;302:320-327.
117. Paran Y, Mashav N, Henis O: Drug-induced torsades de pointes in patients aged 80 years or more. Anadolu Kardiyol Derg 2008;8:260-265.
118. Shaffer D, Singer S, Korvick J: Concomitant risk factors in reports of torsades de pointes associated with macrolide use: review of the United States Food and Drug Administration Adverse Event Reporting System. Clin Infect Dis 2002;35:197-200.
119. Inoue M, Farrell DJ, Kaneko K: Antimicrobial susceptibility of respiratory tract pathogens in Japan during PROTEKT years 1-5 (1999-2004). Microb Drug Resist 2008;14:109-117.
120. Jacobs E, Dalhoff A, Korfmann G: Susceptibility patterns of bacterial isolates from hospitalised patients with respiratory tract infections (MOXIAKTIV Study). Int J Antimicrob Agents 2009;33:52-57.
121. Karlowsky JA, Lagace-Wiens PR, Low DE: Annual macrolide prescription rates and the emergence of macrolide resistance among Streptococcus pneumoniae in Canada from 1995 to 2005. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2009;34:375-379.
122. Pihlajamaki M, Kaijalainen T, Huovinen P: Rapid increase in macrolide resistance among penicillin non-susceptible pneumococci in Finland, 1996-2000. J Antimicrob Chemother 2002;49:785-792.
123. Niki Y, Hanaki H, Matsumoto T: Nationwide surveillance of bacterial respiratory pathogens conducted by the Japanese Society of Chemotherapy in 2007: general view of the pathogens' antibacterial susceptibility. J Infect Chemother 2009;15:156-167.
124. Riedel S, Beekmann SE, Heilmann KP: Antimicrobial use in Europe and antimicrobial resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2007;26:485-490.
125. Barkai G, Greenberg D, Givon-Lavi N: Community prescribing and resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. Emerg Infect Dis 2005;11:829-837.
126. Bergman M, Huikko S, Huovinen P: Macrolide and azithromycin use are linked to increased macrolide resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006;50:3646-3650.
127. Garcia-Rey C, Aguilar L, Baquero F: Importance of local variations in antibiotic consumption and geographical differences of erythromycin and penicillin resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae. J Clin Microbiol 2002;40:159-164.
128. Malhotra-Kumar S, Lammens C, Martel A: Oropharyngeal carriage of macrolide-resistant viridans group streptococci: a prevalence study among healthy adults in Belgium. J Antimicrob Chemother 2004;53:271-276.
129. Perez-Trallero E, Vicente D, Montes M: High proportion of pharyngeal carriers of commensal streptococci resistant to erythromycin in Spanish adults. J Antimicrob Chemother 2001;48:225-229.
130. Lonks JR, Garau J, Medeiros AA: Implications of antimicrobial resistance in the empirical treatment of community-acquired respiratory tract infections: the case of macrolides. J Antimicrob Chemother 2002;50(suppl S 2):87-92.
131. Hansen CR, Pressler T, Hoiby N: Longterm, low-dose azithromycin treatment reduces the incidence but increases macrolide resistance in Staphylococcus aureus in Danish CF patients. J Cyst Fibros 2009;8:58-62.
132. Phaff SJ, Tiddens HA, Verbrugh HA: Macrolide resistance of Staphylococcus aureus and Haemophilus species associated with long-term azithromycin use in cystic fibrosis. J Antimicrob Chemother 2006;57:741-746.
133. Tramper-Stranders GA, Wolfs TF, Fleer A: Maintenance azithromycin treatment in pediatric patients with cystic fibrosis: longterm outcomes related to macrolide resistance and pulmonary function. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2007;26:8-12.
134. Kasahara K, Kita E, Maeda K: Macrolide resistance of Streptococcus pneumoniae isolated during long-term macrolide therapy: difference between erythromycin and clarithromycin. J Infect Chemother 2005;11:112-114.
135. Bishai W: A testament to sustained macrolide efficacy. Clin Infect Dis 2003;36:935-936.
136. Nuermberger E, Bishai WR: The clinical significance of macrolide-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae: it's all relative. Clin Infect Dis 2004;38:99-103.
137. Rothermel CD: Penicillin and macrolide resistance in pneumococcal pneumonia: does in vitro resistance affect clinical outcomes? Clin Infect Dis 2004;38(suppl 4): S346-S349.
138. Ewig S, Ruiz M, Torres A: Pneumonia acquired in the community through drugresistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999;159:1835-1842.
139. Lonks JR, Garau J, Gomez L: Failure of macrolide antibiotic treatment in patients with bacteremia due to erythromycin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. Clin Infect Dis 2002;35:556-564.
140. Van Kerkhoven D, Peetermans WE, Verbist L: Breakthrough pneumococcal bacteraemia in patients treated with clarithromycin or oral beta-lactams. J Antimicrob Chemother 2003;51:691-696.
141. Griffith DE, Aksamit T, Brown-Elliott BA: An official ATS/IDSA statement: diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of nontuberculous mycobacterial diseases. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2007;175:367-416.
142. Griffith DE, Brown-Elliott BA, Langsjoen B: Clinical and molecular analysis of macrolide resistance in Mycobacterium avium complex lung disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2006;174:928-934.
143. Gordin FM, Sullam PM, Shafran SD: A randomized, placebo-controlled study of rifabutin added to a regimen of clarithromycin and ethambutol for treatment of disseminated infection with Mycobacterium avium complex. Clin Infect Dis 1999;28:1080-1085.
144. Lam PK, Griffith DE, Aksamit TR: Factors related to response to intermittent treatment of Mycobacterium avium complex lung disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2006;173:1283-1289.
145. Benson CA, Williams PL, Currier JS: A prospective, randomized trial examining the efficacy and safety of clarithromycin in combination with ethambutol, rifabutin, or both for the treatment of disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex disease in persons with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Clin Infect Dis 2003;37:1234-1243.
146. Field SK, Cowie RL: Treatment of Mycobacterium avium - intracellulare complex lung disease with a macrolide, ethambutol, and clofazimine. Chest 2003;124:1482-1486.
147. Wallace RJ Jr, Brown BA, Griffith DE: Initial clarithromycin monotherapy for Mycobacterium avium - intracellulare complex lung disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994;149:1335-1341.