Management of type 2 diabetes: Evolving strategies for the treatment of patients with type 2 diabetes

Metabolism: Clinical and Experimental

Volumn 60, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 1-23

  Nyenwe, Ebenezer A ^a   Jerkins, Terri W ^b   Umpierrez, Guillermo E ^c   Kitabchi, Abbas E ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE HEALTH SCIENCE CENTER   (United States)

^b LIPSCOMB UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c EMORY UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACARBOSE; ALPHA GLUCOSIDASE INHIBITOR; ANTIOBESITY AGENT; BIGUANIDE; DIPEPTIDYL PEPTIDASE IV INHIBITOR; GLIBENCLAMIDE; GLIBENCLAMIDE PLUS METFORMIN; GLIPIZIDE; GLITAZONE DERIVATIVE; INSULIN; INSULIN DETEMIR; INSULIN GLARGINE; INSULIN LISPRO; INSULIN ZINC SUSPENSION; ISOPHANE INSULIN; MEGLITINIDE; METFORMIN; METFORMIN PLUS REPAGLINIDE; METFORMIN PLUS ROSIGLITAZONE; NATEGLINIDE; ORAL ANTIDIABETIC AGENT; PIOGLITAZONE; PRAMLINTIDE; PRANDIMET; REPAGLINIDE; ROSIGLITAZONE; SIBUTRAMINE; SITAGLIPTIN; SULFONYLUREA; TETRAHYDROLIPSTATIN; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; UNINDEXED DRUG;

ADJUVANT THERAPY; AMBULATORY CARE; APPETITE; BLOATING; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CLINICAL PRACTICE; CONGESTIVE HEART FAILURE; DIABETES CONTROL; DIABETES MELLITUS; DIABETIC PATIENT; DRUG COST; DRUG DOSE REDUCTION; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG SAFETY; DYSLIPIDEMIA; ENDOTHELIAL DYSFUNCTION; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; EXERCISE; FLUID RETENTION; FRACTURE; GASTROINTESTINAL DISEASE; GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY; GLUCOSE BLOOD LEVEL; GLYCEMIC CONTROL; HORMONE ACTION; HOSPITAL PATIENT; HUMAN; HYPOGLYCEMIA; INFLAMMATION; INSULIN RELEASE; INSULIN RESISTANCE; INSULIN TREATMENT; LIFESTYLE MODIFICATION; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; MONOTHERAPY; NAUSEA; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; NUTRITION; OBESITY; OUTPATIENT; PATHOGENESIS; PATIENT EDUCATION; PATIENT MONITORING; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK REDUCTION; SATIETY; SIDE EFFECT; SINGLE DRUG DOSE; SURGICAL PATIENT; TREATMENT INDICATION; TREATMENT OUTCOME; VOMITING; WEIGHT GAIN; WEIGHT REDUCTION;

BLOOD GLUCOSE; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; DIABETES MELLITUS, TYPE 2; EXERCISE; HEMOGLOBIN A, GLYCOSYLATED; HUMANS; HYPOGLYCEMIC AGENTS; INTENSIVE CARE UNITS; METFORMIN;

EID: 78649957959     PISSN: 00260495     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.metabol.2010.09.010     Document Type: Review

References (199)

1. De Fronzo R.A. Lilly lecture 1987. The triumvirate: beta cell, muscle, liver. A collusion responsible for NIDDM Diabetes 37 1988 667 687
2. DeFronzo R.A. From the triumvirate to the ominous octet: a new paradigm for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus Diabetes 58 2009 773 795
3. Centers for Disease Control National Diabetes Fact Sheet 2007 Accessed online at www.cdc.gov/diabetes/pubs/factsheet07.htm on December 2, 2009
4. Mokdad A.H., Ford E.S., and Bowman B.A. Prevalence of obesity, diabetes, and obesity-related health risk factors, 2001 JAMA 289 2003 76 79
5. Stolar M.W. Atherosclerosis in diabetes: the role of hyperinsulinemia Metabolism 37 2 Suppl 1 1988 1 9
6. American Diabetes Association Clinical practice recommendations Diabetes Care 33 2010 S1 S100
7. International Expert Committee report on the role of the A1C assay in the diagnosis of diabetes Diabetes Care 32 2009 1327 1334
8. Herman W.H., Young M.A., Waifo G.U. and the Diabetes Preventions Program Research Group Differences in A1C by race and ethnicity among patients with impaired glucose tolerance in the Diabetes Prevention Program Diabetes Care 30 2007 2453 2457
9. Bergenstal R.M., Kendall D.M., and Franz M.J. Management of type 2 diabetes: a systematic approach to meeting the standards of care. II: oral agents, insulin, and management of complications L.J. DeGroot, J.L. Jameson, Endocrinology 4th ed. 2001 Saunders Co. Philadelphia: WB 821 835
10. Müller W.A., Faloona G.R., and Aguilar-Parada E. Abnormal alpha-cell function in diabetes. Response to carbohydrate and protein ingestion N Engl J Med 283 1970 109 115
11. Kitabchi A.E. The escalating pandemics of obesity and sedentary lifestyle IAMA Bull 10 2006 50 52
12. Drucker D.J. Glucagon-like peptides Diabetes 47 1998 159 169
13. Funnell M.M., Brown T.L., and Childs B.P. National standards for diabetes self-management education Diabetes Care 33 2010 S89 S96
14. Goldhaber-Fiebert J.D., Goldhaber-Fiebert S.N., and Tristán M.L. Randomized controlled community-based nutrition and exercise intervention improves glycemia and cardiovascular risk factors in type 2 diabetic patients in rural Costa Rica Diabetes Care 26 2003 24 29
15. Appel L.J., Moore T.J., and Obarzanek E. A clinical trial of the effects of dietary patterns on blood pressure. DASH Collaborative Research Group N Engl J Med 336 1997 1117 1124
16. Van Horn L., McCoin M., and Kris-Etherton P.M. The evidence for dietary prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease J Am Diet Assoc 108 2008 287 331
17. LOOK AHEAD Research Group Reduction in weight and cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors in subjects with type diabetes (T2DM): one year results of the Look AHEAD trial Diabetes Care 30 2007 1374 1383
18. Foster G.D., Wyatt H.R., and Hill J.O. A randomized trial of a low-carbohydrate diet for obesity N Engl J Med 348 2003 2082 2090
19. Stern L., Iqbal N., and Seshadri P. The effects of low-carbohydrate versus conventional weight loss diets in severely obese adults: one-year follow-up of a randomized trial Ann Intern Med 140 2004 778 785
20. Nordmann A.J., Nordmann A., and Briel M. Effects of low-carbohydrate vs low-fat diets on weight loss and cardiovascular risk factors: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials Arch Intern Med 166 2006 285 293
21. Brennan A.M., Sweeney L.L., and Liu X. Walnut consumption increases satiation but has no effect on insulin resistance or the metabolic profile over a 4-day period Obesi(Silver Spring) 18 2010 1176 1182
22. Lovejoy B. JC. The impact of nuts on diabetes and diabetes risk Current Diabetes report 5 2005 379 384
23. Song Y., Cook N.R., and Albert C.M. Effects of vitamins C and E and beta-carotene on the risk of type 2 diabetes in women at high risk of cardiovascular disease: a randomized controlled trial Am J Clin Nutr 90 2009 253 254
24. Knowler W.C., Barrett-Connor E., and Fowler S.E. Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group. Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin N Engl J Med 346 2002 393 403
25. Pan X.R., Li G.W., and Hu Y.H. Effects of diet and exercise in preventing NIDDM in people with impaired glucose tolerance. The Da Qing IGT and Diabetes Study Diabetes Care 20 1997 537 544
26. Boulé N.G., Haddad E., and Kenny G.P. Effects of exercise on glycemic control and body mass in type 2 diabetes mellitus: a meta-analysis of controlled clinical trials JAMA 286 2001 1218 1227
27. James W.P., Astrup A., Finer N., et al. Effect of sibutramine on weight maintenance after weight loss: a randomised trial. STORM Study Group. Sibutramine Trial of Obesity Reduction and Maintenance. Lancet 2000; 23-30;356 (9248):2119-2125.
28. Hainer V., Toplak H., and Mitrakou A. Treatment modalities of obesity-what fits whom? Diabetes Care 31 Suppl 2 2008 S269 S277
29. Torgerson J.S., Hauptman J., and Boldrin M.N. Xenical in the Prevention of Diabetes in Obese Subjects (XENDOS) study: randomized study of orlistat as an adjunct to lifestyle changes for the prevention of type 2 diabetes in obese patients Diabetes Care 27 2004 155 161
30. Horton E.S., Silberman C., and Davis K.L. Weight loss, glycemic control, and changes in cardiovascular biomarkers in patients with type 2 diabetes receiving incretin therapies or insulin in a large cohort database Diabetes Care 33 2010 1759 1765
31. Klonoff D.C., Buse J.B., and Nielsen L.L. Exenatide effects on diabetes, obesity, cardiovascular risk factors and hepatic biomarkers in patients with type 2 diabetes treated for at least 3 years Curr Med Res Opin 24 2008 275 286
32. Astrup A., Rössner S., and Van Gaal L. NN8022-1807 Study Group. Effects of liraglutide in the treatment of obesity: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study Lancet 374 2009 1606 1616
33. Toplak H., Hamann A., and Moore R. Efficacy and safety of topiramate in combination with metformin in the treatment of obese subjects with type 2 diabetes: a randomized double-blind, placebo controlled study Int J Obes 31 2007 138 146
34. Klonoff D.C., and Greenway F. Drugs in the pipeline for the obesity market J Diabetes Sci Technol 2 2008 913 918
35. Kennett G.A., and Clifton P.G. New approaches to the pharmacological treatment of obesity: can they break through the efficacy barrier? Pharmacol Biochem Behav 97 2010 63 83
36. Buchwald H., Estok R., and Fahrbach K. Weight and type 2 diabetes after bariatric surgery: systematic review and meta-analysis Am J Med 122 2009 248 256.e5
37. Dixon J.B., O'Brien P.E., and Playfair J. Adjustable gastric banding and conventional therapy for type 2 diabetes: a randomized controlled trial JAMA 23 299 2008 316 323
38. Adams T.D., Gress R.E., and Smith S.C. Long-term mortality after gastric bypass surgery N Engl J Med 357 2007 753 761
39. Sjöström L., Narbro K., and Sjöström C.D. Swedish Obese Subjects Study. Effects of bariatric surgery on mortality in Swedish obese subjects N Engl J Med 357 2007 741 752
40. O'Brien P.E., Sawyer S.M., and Laurie C. Laparoscopic adjustable gastric banding in severely obese adolescents: a randomized trial JAMA 303 2010 519 526
41. Wolfe B.M., and Morton J.M. Weighing in on bariatric surgery: procedure use, readmission rates and mortality JAMA 294 2005 1960 1963
42. Purnell J.Q., and Flum D.R. Bariatric Surgery and Diabetes: Who Should Be Offered the Option of Remission? JAMA 301 2009 1593 1595
43. Welschen L.M., Bloemendal E., and Nijpels G. Self-monitoring of blood glucose in patients with type 2 diabetes who are not using insulin: a systematic review Diabetes Care 28 2005 1510 1515
44. Murata G.H., Shah J.H., and Hoffman R.M. Intensified blood glucose monitoring improves glycemic control in stable, insulin-treated veterans with type 2 diabetes: the Diabetes Outcomes in Veterans Study (DOVES). Diabetes Outcomes in Veterans Study (DOVES) Diabetes Care 26 2003 1759 1763
45. O'Kane M.J., Bunting B., and Copeland M. ESMON Study Group, et al. Efficacy of self monitoring of blood glucose in patients with newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes (ESMON study): randominzed controlled trial BMJ 336 2008 1174 1177
46. Coster S., Gulliford M.C., and Seed P.T. Self-monitoring in type 2 diabetes mellitus: a meta-analysis Diabet Med 17 2000 755 761
47. The DCCT Research Group The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group N Engl J Med 329 1993 977 986
48. UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group Intensive blood-glucose control with sulfonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes. (UKPDS 33) Lancet 352 1998 837 853
49. Ohkubo Y., Kishikawa H., and Araki E. Intensive insulin therapy prevents the progression of diabetic microvascular complications in Japanese patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: a randomized prospective 6-year study Diabetes Res Clin Pract 28 1995 103
50. Cagliero E., Levina E.V., and Nathan D.M. Immediate feedback of HbA1c levels improves glycemic control in type 1 and insulin-treated type 2 diabetic patients Diabetes Care 22 1999 1785 1789
51. Nyenwe E.A., and Fisher J.N. A mistaken diagnosis of type 2 diabetes due to hemoglobin N-Baltimore Am J Med Sci 336 2008 524 526
52. Youssef D., El Abbassi A., and Jordan R.M. Fructosamine-an underutilized tool in diabetes management: case report and literature review Tennessee Medicine 2008 31 33
53. Nathan D.M., Kuenen J., and Borg R. A1c-derived average glucose (ADAG) study group: Translating the A1c assay into estimated average glucose values Diabetes Care 31 2008 1 6
54. Lenters-Westra E., and Slingerland R.J. Hemoglobin A1c determination in the A1C-Derived Average Glucose (ADAG) study Clin Chem Lab Med 46 2008 1617 1623
55. Edelson G.W., Fachnie J.D., and Whitehouse F.W. Perioperative management of diabetes Henry Ford Hosp Med J 38 1990 262 265
56. Root H.F. Preoperative medical care of the diabetic patient Postgrad Med 40 1966 439 444
57. Jacober S.J., and Sowers J.R. An update on perioperative management of diabetes Arch Intern Med 159 1999 2405 2411
58. Risum O., Abdelnoor M., and Svennevig J.L. Diabetes mellitus and morbidity and mortality risks after coronary artery bypass surgery Scand J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 30 1996 71 75
59. Rehman H.U., and Mohammed K. Perioperative management of diabetic patients Curr Surg 60 2003 607 611
60. Thourani V.H., Weintraub W.S., and Stein B. Influence of diabetes mellitus on early and late outcome after coronary artery bypass grafting Ann Thorac Surg 67 1999 1045 1052
61. Umpierrez G.E., Isaacs S.D., and Bazargan N. Hyperglycemia: an independent marker of in-hospital mortality in patients with undiagnosed diabetes J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87 2002 978 982
62. Pomposelli J.J., Baxter J.K. 3rd, and Babineau T.J. Early postoperative glucose control predicts nosocomial infection rate in diabetic patients JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 22 1998 77 81
63. van den Berghe G., Wouters P., and Weekers F. Intensive insulin therapy in the critically ill patients N Engl J Med 345 2001 1359 1367
64. Finney S.J., Zekveld C., Elia A., and Evans T.W. Glucose control and mortality in critically ill patients JAMA 290 2003 2041 2047
65. Clement S., Braithwaite S.S., and Magee M.F. Management of diabetes and hyperglycemia in hospitals Diabetes Care 27 2004 553 597
66. Furnary A.P., Gao G., and Grunkemeier G.L. Continuous insulin infusion reduces mortality in patients with diabetes undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 125 2003 1007 1021
67. Estrada C.A., Young J.A., and Nifong L.W. Outcomes and perioperative hyperglycemia in patients with or without diabetes mellitus undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting Ann Thorac Surg 75 2003 1392 1399
68. Capes S.E., Hunt D., and Malmberg K. Stress hyperglycemia and prognosis of stroke in nondiabetic and diabetic patients: a systematic overview Stroke 32 2001 2426 2432
69. Capes S.E., Hunt D., and Malmberg K. Stress hyperglycaemia and increased risk of death after myocardial infarction in patients with and without diabetes: a systematic overview Lancet 355 2000 773 778
70. Malmberg K., Norhammar A., and Wedel H. Glycometabolic state at admission: important risk marker of mortality in conventionally treated patients with diabetes mellitus and acute myocardial infarction: long-term results from the Diabetes and Insulin-Glucose Infusion in Acute Myocardial Infarction (DIGAMI) study Circulation 99 1999 2626 2632
71. Furnary A.P., Wu Y., and Bookin S.O. Effect of hyperglycemia and continuous intravenous insulin infusions on outcomes of cardiac surgical procedures: the Portland diabetic project Endocrine Practice 10 Suppl. 2 2004 21 33
72. Krinsley J.S. Association between hyperglycemia and increased hospital mortality in a heterogeneous population of critically ill patients Mayo Clin Proc 78 2003 1471 1478
73. Brunkhorst F.M., Engel C., and Bloos F. Intensive insulin therapy and pentastarch resuscitation in severe sepsis N Engl J Med 358 2008 125 139
74. De La Rosa Gdel C., Donado J.H., and Restrepo A.H. Strict glycaemic control in patients hospitalised in a mixed medical and surgical intensive care unit: a randomised clinical trial Crit Care 12 2008 R120
75. Finfer S., Chittock D.R., and Su S.Y. Intensive versus conventional glucose control in critically ill patients N Engl J Med 360 2009 1283 1297
76. Preiser J.C., and Brunkhorst F. Tight glucose control and hypoglycemia Crit Care Med 36 2008 1391 [author reply 1391-1392]
77. Malmberg K., Ryden L., and Wedel H. Intense metabolic control by means of insulin in patients with diabetes mellitus and acute myocardial infarction (DIGAMI 2): effects on mortality and morbidity Eur Heart J 26 2005 650 661
78. Van den Berghe G., Wilmer A., and Hermans G. Intensive insulin therapy in the medical ICU N Engl J Med 354 2006 449 461
79. Preiser J.C., Devos P., and Ruiz-Santana S. A prospective randomised multi-centre controlled trial on tight glucose control by intensive insulin therapy in adult intensive care units: the Glucontrol study Intensive Care Med 35 2009 1738 1748
80. Griesdale D.E., de Souza R.J., and van Dam R.M. Intensive insulin therapy and mortality among critically ill patients: a meta-analysis including NICE-SUGAR study data CMAJ 180 2009 821 827
81. Wiener R.S., Wiener D.C., and Larson R.J. Benefits and risks of tight glucose control in critically ill adults: a meta-analysis JAMA 300 2008 933 944
82. Kitabchi A.E., Freire A.X., and Umpierrez G.E. Evidence for strict inpatient blood glucose control: time to revise glycemic goals in hospitalized patients Metabolism 57 2008 116 120
83. Kosiborod M., Inzucchi S.E., and Spertus J.A. Elevated admission glucose and mortality in elderly patients hospitalized with heart failure Circulation 119 2009 1899 1907
84. McAlister F.A., Laupacis A., and Wells G.A. Users' Guides to the Medical Literature: XIX. Applying clinical trial results B. Guidelines for determining whether a drug is exerting (more than) a class effect JAMA 282 1999 1371 1377
85. McAlister F.A., Majumdar S.R., and Blitz S. The relation between hyperglycemia and outcomes in 2,471 patients admitted to the hospital with community-acquired pneumonia Diabetes Care 28 2005 810 815
86. Baker E.H., Janaway C.H., and Philips B.J. Hyperglycaemia is associated with poor outcomes in patients admitted to hospital with acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease Thorax 61 2006 284 289
87. Moghissi E.S., Korytkowski M.T., and DiNardo M. American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and American Diabetes Association consensus statement on inpatient glycemic control Diabetes Care 32 2009 1119 1131
88. Turner R., Cull C., and Holman R. United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study 17: a 9-year update of a randomized, controlled trial on the effect of improved metabolic control on complications in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus Ann. Intern Med 124 1996 136 145
89. U.K. Prospective Diabetes Study Group U.K. prospective diabetes study 16. Overview of 6 years' therapy of type II diabetes: a progressive disease Diabetes 44 1995 1249 1258
90. Jesudason D.R., Dunstan K., and Leong D. Macrovascular risk and diagnostic criteria for type 2 diabetes Diabetes Care 26 2003 485 490
91. Khaw K.T., Wareham N., and Bingham S. Association of hemoglobin A1C with cardiovascular disease and mortality in adults: the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer in Norfolk Ann Intern Med 141 2004 413 420
92. The Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes Study Group Effects of intensive glucose lowering in type 2 diabetes N Engl J Med 358 2008 2545 2559
93. The ACCORD Study Group Effects of intensive blood-pressure control in type 2 diabetes mellitus N Engl J Med 362 2010 1575 1585
94. The ACCORD Study Group Effects of Combination Lipid Therpy in Type 2 diabetes Mellitus N Engl J Med 362 2010 1563 1574
95. The Advance Collaborative Group Intensive blood glucose control and vascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes N Engl J Med 358 2008 2560 2572
96. The Investigators for the VADT Glucose control and vascular complications in veterans with type 2 diabetes N Engl J Med 360 2009 129 139
97. Holman R.R., Paul S.K., and Bethel M.A. 10-yr follow-up of intensive glucose control in type 2 diabetes N Engl J Med 359 2008 1577 1589
98. Diabetes Control and Complications Trial/Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions and Complications (DCCT/EDIC) Study Group Intensive diabetes treatment and cardiovascular disease in patients with type 1 diabetes N Engl J Med 353 2005 2643 2653
99. Coutinho M., Gerstein H.C., and Wang Y. The relationship between glucose and incident cardiovascular events. A metaregression analysis of published data from 20 studies of 95,783 individuals followed for 12.4 years Diabetes Care 22 1999 233 240
100. Tominaga M., Eguchi H., and Manaka H. Impaired glucose tolerance is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease, but not impaired fasting glucose. The Funagata Diabetes Study Diabetes Care 22 1999 920 924
101. Aryangat A.V., and Gerich J.E. Type 2 diabetes: postprandial hyperglycemia and increased cardiovascular risk Vasc Health Risk Manag 6 2010 145 155
102. Ceriello A., Esposito K., and Piconi L. Oscillating glucose is more deleterious to endothelial function and oxidative stress than mean glucose in normal and type 2 diabetic patients Diabetes 57 2008 1349 1354
103. Mazzone T., Chait A., and Plutzky J. Cardiovascular disease risk in type 2 diabetes mellitus: insights from mechanistic studies Lancet 371 2008 1800 1809
104. Otsuka A., Azuma K., and Iesaki T. Temporary hyperglycaemia provokes monocyte adhesion to endothelial cells in rat thoracic aorta Diabetologia 48 2005 2667 2674
105. Monnier L., Mas E., and Ginet C. Activation of oxidative stress by acute glucose fluctuations compared with sustained chronic hyperglycemia in patients with type 2 diabetes JAMA 295 2006 1681 1687
106. Stentz F.B., Umpierrez G.E., and Cuervo R. Proinflammatory cytokines, markers of cardiovascular risks, oxidative stress, and lipid peroxidation in patients with hyperglycemic crises Diabetes 53 2004 2079 2086
107. Holman R.R., Haffner S.M., and McMurray J.J. Effect of nateglinide on the incidence of diabetes and cardiovascular events N Engl J Med 362 2010 1463 1476
108. Nathan D.M., Buse J.B., and Davidson M.B. Medical management of hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetes: a consensus algorithm for the initiation and adjustment of therapy Diabetes Care 32 2008 1 11
109. Chiasson J.L., Josse R.G., and Gomis R. STOP-NIDDM Trial Research Group. Acarbose treatment and the risk of cardiovascular disease and hypertension in patients with impaired glucose tolerance: the STOP-NIDDM trial JAMA 290 2003 486 494
110. Salpeter S., Greyber E., and Pasternak G. Risk of fatal and nonfatal lactic acidosis with metformin use in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 1 2006 CD002967
111. Bailey C.J., and Turner R.C. Metformin N Engl J Med 334 1996 574 579
112. Goodarzi M.O., and Bryer-Ash M. Metformin revisited: re-evaluation of its properties and role in the pharmacopoeia of modern antidiabetic agents Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism 7 2005 654 665
113. Klein J., Westphal S., and Kraus D. Metformin inhibits leptin secretion via a mitogen-activated protein kinase signalling pathway in brown adipocytes J Endocrinol 183 2004 299 307
114. UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group Effect of intensive blood-glucose control with metformin on complications in overweight patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 34) Lancet 352 1998 854 865
115. Calvert J.W., Gundewar S., and Jha S. Acute metformin therapy confers cardioprotection against myocardial infarction via AMPK-eNOS mediated signaling Diabetes 57 2008 696 705
116. Nestler J.E., Jakubowicz D.J., and Evans W.S. Effects of metformin on spontaneous and clomiphene-induced ovulation in the polycystic ovarian syndrome N Engl J Med 338 1998 1876 1880
117. Kooy A., de Jager J., and Lehert P. Long-term effects of metformin on metabolism and microvascular and macrovascular disease in patients with type 2 diabetes Arch Intern Med 169 2009 616 625
118. Ong C.R., Molyneaux L.M., and Constantino M.I. Long-term efficacy of metformin therapy in nonobese individuals with type 2 diabetes Diabetes Care 29 2006 2361 2364
119. Evans J.M., Donnelly L.A., and Emslie-Smith A.M. Metformin and reduced risk of cancer in diabetic patients BMJ 330 2005 1304 1305
120. Bowker S.L., Majumdar S.R., and Veugelers P. Increased cancer-related mortality for patients with type 2 diabetes who use sulfonylureas or insulin Diabetes Care 29 2006 254 258
121. Zakikhani M., Dowling R., and Fantus I.G. Metformin is an AMP kinase-dependent growth inhibitor for breast cancer cells Cancer Res 66 2006 10269 10273
122. The Dream Trial Investigators Effect of rosiglitazone on the frequency of diabetes in patients with impaired glucose tolerance or impaired fasting glucose: a randomized controlled trial Lancet 368 2006 1096 1105
123. DeFronzo R., Banerji M.A., and Bray G. ACTos now for the prevention of diabetes (ACT NOW) study Late breaking abstract 2008-LB-4843-Diabetes, program of 68th Annual Meeting, American Diabetes Association 2008
124. Gastaldelli A., Ferrannini E., and Miyazaki Y. Thiazolidinediones improve beta-cell function in type 2 diabetic patients Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 292 2007 E871 E883
125. Yang Z., Zhou Z., and Li X. Rosiglitazone preserves islet beta-cell function of adult-onset latent autoimmune diabetes in 3 years follow-up study Diabetes Res Clin Pract 83 2009 54 60
126. Nissen S.E., and Wolski K. Effect of rosiglitazone on the risk of myocardial infarction and death from cardiovascular causes N Engl J Med 356 2007 2457 2471
127. Singh S., Loke Y.K., and Furberg C.D. Long-term risk of cardiovascular events with rosiglitazone: a meta-analysis JAMA 298 2007 1189 1195
128. Bloomgarden Z.T. Approaches to treatment of type 2 diabetes Diabetes Care 31 2008 1697 1703
129. Kahn S.E., Haffner S.M., and Heise M.A. ADOPT Study Group. Glycemic durability of rosiglitazone, metformin, or glyburide monotherapy N Engl J Med 355 2006 2427 2443
130. Home P.D., Pocock S.J., and Beck-Nielsen H. RECORD Study Team. Rosiglitazone evaluated for cardiovascular outcomes in oral agent combination therapy for type 2 diabetes (RECORD): a multicentre, randomised, open-label trial Lancet 373 2009 2125 2135
131. Bloomgarden Z.T. Glycemic control in diabetes: a tale of three studies Diabetes Care 31 2008 1913 1919
132. Kahler K.H., Rajan M., and Rhoads G.C. Impact of oral antihyperglycemic therapy on all-cause mortality among patients with diabetes in the Veterans Health Administration Diabetes Care 30 2007 1689 1692
133. Karalliedde J., Buckingham R., and Starkie M. Rosiglitazone Fluid Retention Study Group. Effect of various diuretic treatments on rosiglitazone induced fluid retention J Am Soc Nephrol 17 2006 3482 3490
134. Ryan E.H. Jr, Han D.P., and Ramsay R.C. Diabetic macular edema associated with glitazone use Retina 26 2006 562 570
135. Neuschwander-Tetri B.A., Brunt E.M., and Wehmeier K.R. Improved nonalcoholic steatohepatits after 48 weeks of treatment with the PPAR-gamma ligand rosiglitazone Hepatology 38 2003 1008 1017
136. Lutchman G., Modi A., and Kleiner D.E. The effects of discontinuing pioglitazone in patients with non alcoholic steatohepatitis Hepatology 46 2007 424 429
137. Schwartz A.V., Sellmeyer D.E., and Vittinghoff E. Thiazolidinedione use and bone loss in older diabetic adults J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91 2006 3349 3354
138. Kahn S.E., Zinman B., and Lachin J.M. Diabetes Outcome Progression Trial (ADOPT) Study Group. Rosiglitazone-associated fractures in type 2 diabetes: an Analysis from A Diabetes Outcome Progression Trial (ADOPT) Diabetes Care 31 2008 845 851
139. Nissen S.E., and Wolski K. Rosiglitazone revisited: an updated meta-analysis of risk for myocardial infarction and cardiovascular mortality Arch Intern Med 170 2010 1191 1201
140. Graham D.J., Ouellet-Hellstrom R., and MaCurdy T.E. Risk of acute myocardial infarction, stroke, heart failure, and death in elderly Medicare patients treated with rosiglitazone or pioglitazone JAMA 304 2010 411 418
141. Wertz D.A., Chang C.L., and Sarawate C.A. Risk of cardiovascular events and all-cause mortality in patients treated with thiazolidinediones in a managed-care population Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes 2010 [Epub ahead of print]
142. Bach R.G. American Diabetes Association (ADA) 2010 Scientific Sessions; June 25-29, 2010, Orlando FL 2010
143. Doshi L.S., Brahma M.K., and Bahirat U.A. Discovery and development of selective PPARgamma modulators as safe and effective antidiabetic agents Expert Opin Investig Drugs 19 2010 489 512
144. Gutzwiller J.P., Drewe J., and Göke B. Glucagon-like peptide-1 promotes satiety and reduces food intake in patients with diabetes mellitus type 2 Am J Physiol 276 1999 1541 1544
145. Kim D., MacConell L., and Zhuang D. Effects of once-weekly dosing of a long acting release formulation of exenatide on glucose control and body weight in subjects with type 2 diabetes Diabetes Care 30 2007 1487 1493
146. Heine R.J., Van Gaal L.F., and Johns D. GWAA Study Group. Exenatide versus glargine in patients with suboptimally controlled type 2 diabetes: a randomized trial Ann Intern Med 143 2005 559 569
147. Glass L.C., Qu Y., and Lenox S. Effects of exenatide versus insulin analogues on weight change in subjects with type 2 diabetes: a pooled post-hoc analysis Curr Med Res Opin 24 2008 639 644
148. US Food and Drug Administration. Safety newsletter. Postmarketing reviews. Exenatide (marketed as Byetta): acute pancreatitis. Winter 2008;1.
149. Noel R.A., Braun D.K., and Patterson R.E. Increased risk of acute pancreatitis and biliary disease observed in patients with type 2 diabetes: a retrospective, cohort study Diabetes Care 32 2009 834 838
150. Ratner R.E., Maggs D., and Nielsen L.L. Long-term effects of exenatide therapy over 82 weeks on glycaemic control and weight in overweight metformin-treated patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus Diabetes Obes Metab 8 2006 419 428
151. Vilsbøll T., Zdravkovic M., and Le-Thi T. Liraglutide, a long-acting human glucagon-like peptide-1 analog given as monotherapy significantly improve glycemic control and lowers body weight without risk of hypoglycemia in patients with type 2 diabetes Diabetes Care 30 2007 1608 1610
152. Timmers L., Henriques J.P., and de Kleijn D.P. Exenatide reduces infarct size and improves cardiac function in a porcine model of ischemia and reperfusion injury J Am Coll Cardiol 53 2009 511 513
153. Buse J.B., Rosenstock J., and Sesti G. LEAD-6 Study Group. Liraglutide once a day versus exenatide twice a day for type 2 diabetes: a 26-week randomised, parallel-group, multinational, open-label trial (LEAD-6) Lancet 374 2009 39 47
154. Nauck M., Frid A., and Hermansen K. LEAD-2 Study Group. Efficacy and safety comparison of liraglutide, glimepiride, and placebo, all in combination with metformin, in type 2 diabetes: the LEAD (liraglutide effect and action in diabetes)-2 study Diabetes Care 32 2009 84 90
155. Bjerre Knudsen L., Madsen L.W., and Andersen S. Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists activate rodent thyroid C-cells causing calcitonin release and C-cell proliferation Endocrinology 151 2010 1473 1486
156. Parks M., and Rosebraugh C. Weighing risks and benefits of liraglutide - the FDA's review of a new antidiabetic therapy N Engl J Med 362 2010 774 777
157. Drucker D.J., and Nauck M.A. The incretin system: glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists and dipeptidyl peptidase-IV inhibitors in type 2 diabetes Lancet 368 2006 1696 1703
158. Gedulin B.R., Rink T.J., and Young A.A. Dose-response for glucagonostatic effect of amylin in rats Metabolism 46 1997 67 70
159. Rushing P.A., Lutz T.A., and Seeley R.J. Amylin and insulin interact to reduce food intake in rats Horm Metab Res 32 2000 62 65
160. Hollander P., Maggs D.G., and Ruggles J.A. Effect of pramlintide on weight in overweight and obese insulin-treated type 2 diabetic patients Obes Res 12 2004 661 668
161. Ceriello A., Lush C.W., and Darsow T. Pramlintide reduced markers of oxidative stress in the postprandial period in patients with type 2 diabetes Diabetes Metab Res Rev 24 2008 103 108
162. Riddle M., Frias J., and Zhang B. Pramlintide improved glycemic control and reduced weight in patients with type 2 diabetes using basal insulin Diabetes Care 30 2007 2794 2799
163. Holstein A., Plaschke T., and Egberts E.H. Lower incidence of severe hypoglycemia in patients with type 2 diabetes treated with glimiperide versus glibenclamide Diabetes Metab Res Rev 17 2001 467 473
164. UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group Sulfonylurea inadequacy: efficacy of addition of insulin over 6 years in patients with type 2 diabetes in the UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS 57) Diabetes Care 25 2002 330 336
165. Langer O., Yogev Y., and Xenakis E.M. Insulin and glyburide therapy: dosage, severity level of gestational diabetes and pregnancy outcome Am J Obstet Gynecol 192 2005 134 139
166. Takahashi A., Nagashima K., and Hamasaki A. Sulfonylurea and glinide reduce insulin content, functional expression of K(ATP) channels, and accelerate apoptotic beta-cell death in the chronic phase Diabetes Res Clin Pract 77 2007 343 350
167. Damsbo P., Clauson P., and Marbury T.C. A double-blind randomized comparison of meal-related glycemic control by repaglinide and glyburide in well-controlled type 2 diabetic patients Diabetes Care 22 1997 789 794
168. Gerich J., Raskin P., and Jean-Louis L. PRESERVE-beta: two year efficacy and safety of initial combination therapy with nateglinide or glyburide plus metformin Diabetes Care 28 2005 2093 2099
169. Li Y., Xu W., and Liao Z. Induction of long-term glycemic control in newly diagnosed type 2 diabetic patients is associated with improvement of beta cell function Diabetes Care 27 2004 2597 2602
170. Peyrot M., Rubin R.R., and Lauritzen T. International DAWN Advisory Panel. Resistance to insulin therapy among patients and providers: results of the cross-national Diabetes Attitudes, Wishes, and Needs (DAWN) study Diabetes Care 28 2005 2673 2679
171. Riddle M.C., Rosenstock J., and Gerich J. Insulin Glargine 4002 Study Investigators. The treat-to-target trial: randomized addition of glargine or human NPH insulin to oral therapy of type 2 diabetic patients Diabetes Care 26 2003 3080 3086
172. Janka H.U., Plewe G., and Riddle M.C. Comparison of basal insulin added to oral agents versus twice-daily premixed insulin as initial insulin therapy for type 2 diabetes Diabetes Care 28 2005 254 259
173. Raskin P., Allen E., and Hollander P. Initiating insulin therapy in type 2 Diabetes: a comparison of biphasic and basal insulin analogs Diabetes Care 28 2005 260 265
174. Holman R.R., Farmer A.J., and Davies M.J. Three-year efficacy of complex regimens in type 2 diabetes N Engl J Med 361 2009 1736 1747
175. Zieve F.J., Kalin M.F., and Schwartz S.L. Results of the Glucose-Lowering Effect of WelChol Study (GLOWS): A randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled pilot study evaluating the effect of colesevelam hydrochloride on glycemic control in subjects with type 2 diabetes Clinical Ther 29 2007 74 83
176. Morrow D.A., Scirica B.M., and Chaitman B.R. MERLIN-TIMI 36 Investigators. Evaluation of the glycometabolic effects of ranolazine in patients with and without diabetes mellitus in the MERLIN-TIMI 36 randomized controlled trial Circulation 119 2009 2032 2039
177. Fleischman A., Shoelson S.E., and Bernier R. Salsalate improves glycemia and inflammatory parameters in obese young adults Diabetes Care 31 2008 289 294
178. List J.F., Woo V., and Morales E. Sodium-glucose cotransport inhibition with dapagliflozin in type 2 diabetes Diabetes Care 32 2009 650 657
179. Wilding J.P., Norwood P., and T'joen C. A study of dapagliflozin in patients with type 2 diabetes receiving high doses of insulin plus insulin sensitizers: applicability of a novel insulin-independent treatment Diabetes Care 32 2009 1656 1662
180. Scranton R.E., Gaziano J.M., and Rutty D. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial to assess safety and tolerability during treatment of type 2 diabetes with usual diabetes therapy and either Cycloset or placebo BMC Endocr Disord 7 2007 3
181. Parker J.C., and McPherson R.K. Effects of skyrin, a receptor-selective glucagon antagonist, in rat and human hepatocytes Diabetes 49 2000 2079 2086
182. Liang Y., Osborne M.C., and Monia B.P. Reduction in glucagon receptor expression by an antisense oligonucleotide ameliorates diabetic syndrome in db/db mice Diabetes 53 2004 410 417
183. Claus T.H., and Pan C.Q. Dual-acting peptide with prolonged glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist and glucagon receptor antagonist activity for the treatment of type 2 diabetes Journal of Endocrinology 192 2007 371 380
184. Ohyama S., Takano H., and Iino T. A small-molecule glucokinase activator lowers blood glucose in the sulfonylurea-desensitized rat Eur J Pharmacol 640 2010 250 256
185. Ishikawa M., Nonoshita K., and Ogino Y. Discovery of novel 2-(pyridine-2-yl)-1H-benzimidazole derivatives as potent glucokinase activators Bioorg Med Chem Lett 19 2009 4450 4454
186. Yang C.S., Lam C.K., and Chari M. Hypothalamic AMPK regulates glucose production Diabetes 2010 Aug 3
187. Cryer P.E., Davis S.N., and Shamoon H. Hypoglycemia in diabetes Diabetes Care 26 2003 1902 1912
188. The United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study Group U.K. prospective diabetes study. 16. Overview of 6 years' therapy of type II diabetes: a progressive disease Diabetes 44 1995 1249 1258
189. Razavi Nematollahi L., Kitabchi A.E., and Stentz F.B. Proinflammatory cytokines in response to insulin-induced hypoglycemic stress in healthy subjects Metabolism 58 2009 443 448
190. Tuomilehto J., Lindström J., Eriksson J.G. for the Finnish Diabetes Prevention Study Group Prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus by changes in lifestyle among subjects with impaired glucose tolerance N Engl J Med 344 2001 1343 1350
191. Diabetes Prevention Program research Group 10-year follow-up of diabetes incidence and weight loss in the Diabetes Prevention Program Outcomes study Lancet 6736 2009 61457 61464
192. Misra A. Prevention of type 2 diabetes: the long and winding road Lancet 374 2009 1655 1656
193. Ramachandra A., Snehalatha C., and Mary C. The Indian Diabetes Prevention Program shoes that lifestyle modification and metformin prevent type 2 diabetes in Asian Indian subjects with impaired glucose tolerance (IDPP-1) Diabetologia 49 2006 289 297
194. Buchanan T.A., Xiang A.H., and Peters R.K. Preservation of pancreatic β-cell function and prevention of type 2 diabetes by pharmacological treatment of insulin resistance in high-risk Hispanic women Diabetes 51 2002 2796 2803
195. Kitabchi A.E., Temprosa M., and Knowler W.C. Role of insulin secretion and sensitivity in the evolution of type 2 diabetes in the diabetes prevention program: effects of lifestyle and metformin Diabetes 54 2005 2404 2414
196. Walker E.A., Molitch M., and Kramer M.K. Adherence to preventive medications: predictors and outcomes in the Diabetes Preventive Program Diabetes Care 29 2006 1997 2002
197. The Diabetes Prevention Program Research group Prevention of type 2 diabetes with troglitazone in the Diabetes Prevention Program Diabetes 54 2005 1150 1156
198. McMurray J.J., Holman R.R., and Haffner S.M. Effect of valsartan on the incidence of diabetes and cardiovascular events New Engl J Med 362 2010 1477 1490
199. The Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group Costs associated with the primary prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus in the diabetes prevention program Diabetes Care 26 2003 36 47