Pulmonary Epithelium: Cell Types and Functions

The Pulmonary Epithelium in Health and Disease

Volumn , Issue , 2008, Pages 1-26

  Chang, Mary Mann Jong ^a   Shih, Laura ^a   Wu, Reen ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Cartilaginous proximal airway region; Clara cell secretory protein (CCSP) expressing cells; Entire pulmonary tree and epithelial cell layer; Goblet cell hyperplasia or metaplasia; Proximal airway epithelial cell type; Pulmonary epithelium cell type and function; Pulmonary epithelium respiratory gas exchange barrier; Pulmonary neuroendocrine (PNE); Pulmonary neuroendocrine cells (PNECs); Stem cell therapy embryonic or adult

Indexed keywords

EID: 78649758150     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9780470727010.ch1     Document Type: Chapter

References (231)

1. Abe, S., Boyer, C., Liu, X., Wen, F. Q., Kobayashi, T., Fang, Q., Wang, X., Hashimoto, M., Sharp, J. G. & Rennard, S. I. (2004) Cells derived from the circulation contribute to the repair of lung injury. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 170, 1158-63
2. Abe, S., Lauby, G., Boyer, C., Rennard, S. I. & Sharp, J. G. (2003) Transplanted BM and BM side population cells contribute progeny to the lung and liver in irradiated mice. Cytotherapy, 5, 523-33
3. Adamson, I. Y. & Bowden, D. H. (1974) The type 2 cell as progenitor of alveolar epithelial regeneration A cytodynamic study in mice after exposure to oxygen. Lab Invest, 30, 35-42
4. Adamson, I. Y. & Bowden, D. H. (1975) Derivation of type 1 epithelium from type 2 cells in the developing rat lung. Lab Invest, 32, 736-45
5. Aikawa, T., Shimura, S., Sasaki, H., Ebina, M. & Takishima, T. (1992) Marked goblet cell hyperplasia with mucus accumulation in the airways of patients who died of severe acute asthma attack. Chest, 101, 916-21
6. Albera, C., Polak, J. M., Janes, S., Griffiths, M. J., Alison, M. R., Wright, N. A., Navaratnarasah, S., Poulsom, R., Jeffery, R., Fisher, C., Burke, M. & Bishop, A. E. (2005) Repopulation of human pulmonary epithelium by bone marrow cells: a potential means to promote repair. Tissue Eng, 11, 1115-21
7. Ali, N. N., Edgar, A. J., Samadikuchaksaraei, A., Timson, C. M., Romanska, H. M., Polak, J. M. & Bishop, A. E. (2002) Derivation of type II alveolar epithelial cells from murine embryonic stem cells. Tissue Eng, 8, 541-50
8. Aliotta, J. M., Passero, M., Meharg, J., Klinger, J., Dooner, M. S., Pimentel, J. & Quesenberry, P. J (2005) Stem cells and pulmonary metamorphosis: new concepts in repair and regeneration. J Cell Physiol, 204, 725-41
9. Anjos-Afonso, F., Siapati, E. K. & Bonnet, D. (2004) In vivo contribution of murine mesenchymal stem cells into multiple cell-types under minimal damage conditions. J Cell Sci, 117, 5655-64
10. Aso, Y., Yoneda, K. & Kikkawa, Y. (1976) Morphologic and biochemical study of pulmonary changes induced by bleomycin in mice. Lab Invest, 35, 558-68
11. Ballard, S. T., Fountain, J. D., Inglis, S. K., Corboz, M. R. & Taylor, A. E. (1995) Chloride secretion across distal airway epithelium: relationship to submucosal gland distribution. Am J Physiol, 268, L526-31
12. Baron, J., Burke, J. P., Guengerich, F. P., Jakoby, W. B. & Voigt, J. M. (1988) Sites for xenobiotic activation and detoxication within the respiratory tract: implications for chemically induced toxicity Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 93, 493-505
13. Barth, P. J., Koch, S., Muller, B., Unterstab, F., Von Wichert, P. & Moll, R. (2000) Proliferation and number of Clara cell 10-kDa protein (CC10)-reactive epithelial cells and basal cells in normal, hyperplastic and metaplastic bronchial mucosa. Virchows Arch, 437, 648-55
14. Basbaum, C. & Jany, B. (1990) Plasticity in the airway epithelium. Am J Physiol, 259, L38-46
15. Basbaum, C. B., Jany, B. & Finkbeiner, W. E. (1990) The serous cell. Annu Rev Physiol, 52, 97-113
16. Batenburg, J. J. & Haagsman, H. P. (1998) The lipids of pulmonary surfactant: dynamics and interactions with proteins. Prog Lipid Res, 37, 235-76
17. Becker, K. L., Monaghan, K. G. & Silva, O. L. (1980) Immunocytochemical localization of calcitonin in Kulchitsky cells of human lung. Arch Pathol Lab Med, 104, 196-8
18. Beckett, T., Loi, R., Prenovitz, R., Poynter, M., Goncz, K. K., Suratt, B. T. & Weiss, D. J. (2005) Acute lung injury with endotoxin or NO2 does not enhance development of airway epithelium from bone marrow. Mol Ther, 12, 680-6
19. Bignon, J., Jaurand, M. C., Pinchon, M. C., Sapin, C. & Warnet, J. M. (1976) Immunoelectron microscopic and immunochemical demonstrations of serum proteins in the alveolar lining material of the rat lung. Am Rev Respir Dis, 113, 109-20
20. Boers, J. E., Ambergen, A. W. & Thunnissen, F. B. (1998) Number and proliferation of basal and parabasal cells in normal human airway epithelium. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 157, 2000-6
21. Boers, J. E., Ambergen, A. W. & Thunnissen, F. B. (1999) Number and proliferation of clara cells in normal human airway epithelium. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 159, 1585-91
22. Borthwick, D. W., West, J. D., Keighren, M. A., Flockhart, J. H., Innes, B. A. & Dorin, J. R (1999) Murine submucosal glands are clonally derived and show a cystic fibrosis gene-dependent distribution pattern. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol, 20, 1181-9
23. Borthwick, D. W., Shahbazian, M., Krantz, Q. T., Dorin, J. R. & Randell, S. H. (2001) Evidence for stem-cell niches in the tracheal epithelium. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol, 24, 662-70
24. Breeze, R. G. & Wheeldon, E. B. (1977) The cells of the pulmonary airways. Am Rev Respir Dis, 116, 705-77
25. Brody, J. S. & Williams, M. C. (1992) Pulmonary alveolar epithelial cell differentiation. Annu Rev Physiol, 54, 351-71
26. Brokaw, C. J. & Kamiya, R. (1987) Bending patterns of Chlamydomonas flagella: IV. Mutants with defects in inner and outer dynein arms indicate differences in dynein arm function. Cell Motil Cytoskeleton, 8, 68-75
27. Bucala, R., Spiegel, L. A., Chesney, J., Hogan, M. & Cerami, A. (1994) Circulating fibrocytes define a new leukocyte subpopulation that mediates tissue repair. Mol Med, 1, 71-81
28. Burnham, E. L., Taylor, W. R., Quyyumi, A. A., Rojas, M., Brigham, K. L. & Moss, M. (2005) Increased circulating endothelial progenitor cells are associated with survival in acute lung injury Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 172, 854-60
29. Cadieux, A., Springall, D. R., Mulderry, P. K., Rodrigo, J., Ghatei, M. A., Terenghi, G., Bloom, S. R & Polak, J. M. (1986) Occurrence, distribution and ontogeny of CGRP immunoreactivity in the rat lower respiratory tract: effect of capsaicin treatment and surgical denervations. Neuroscience, 19, 605-27
30. Capella, C., Hage, E., Solcia, E. & Usellini, L. (1978) Ultrastructural similarity of endocrine-like cells of the human lung and some related cells of the gut. Cell Tissue Res, 186, 25-37
31. Castillon, N., Avril-Delplanque, A., Coraux, C., Delenda, C., Peault, B., Danos, O. & Puchelle, E (2004) Regeneration of a well-differentiated human airway surface epithelium by spheroid and lentivirus vector-transduced airway cells. J Gene Med, 6, 846-56
32. Castleman, W. L., Dungworth, D. L. & Tyler, W. S. (1975) Intrapulmonary airway morphology in three species of monkeys: a correlated scanning and transmission electron microscopic study. Am J Anat, 142, 107-21
33. Chander, A., Reicherter, J. & Fisher, A. B. (1987) Degradation of dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine by isolated rat granular pneumocytes and reutilization for surfactant synthesis. J Clin Invest, 79, 1133-8
34. Chang, J. C., Summer, R., Sun, X., Fitzsimmons, K. & Fine, A. (2005) Evidence that bone marrow cells do not contribute to the alveolar epithelium. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol, 33, 335-42
35. Chatelet, F., Brianti, E., Ronco, P., Roland, J. & Verroust, P. (1986) Ultrastructural localization by monoclonal antibodies of brush border antigens expressed by glomeruli. I. Renal distribution. Am J Pathol, 122, 500-11
36. Chen, Y., Thai, P., Zhao, Y. H., Ho, Y. S., Desouza, M. M. & Wu, R. (2003) Stimulation of airway mucin gene expression by interleukin (IL)-17 through IL-6 paracrine/autocrine loop. J Biol Chem, 278, 17036-43
37. Choi, J. A., Kim, J. H., Hong, K. T., Kim, H. S., Oh, Y. W. & Kang, E. Y. (2000) CT bronchus sign in malignant solitary pulmonary lesions: value in the prediction of cell type. Eur Radiol, 10, 1304-9
38. Coraux, C., Nawrocki-Raby, B., Hinnrasky, J., Kileztky, C., Gaillard, D., Dani, C. & Puchelle, E (2005) Embryonic stem cells generate airway epithelial tissue. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol, 32, 87-92
39. Crapo, J. D., Barry, B. E., Gehr, P., Bachofen, M. & Weibel, E. R. (1982) Cell number and cell characteristics of the normal human lung. Am Rev Respir Dis, 126, 332-7
40. Danto, S. I., Zabski, S. M. & Crandall, E. D. (1992) Reactivity of alveolar epithelial cells in primary culture with type I cell monoclonal antibodies. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol, 6, 296-306
41. Danto, S. I., Shannon, J. M., Borok, Z., Zabski, S. M. & Crandall, E. D. (1995) Reversible transdifferentiation of alveolar epithelial cells. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol, 12, 497-502
42. Davies, J. C., Potter, M., Bush, A., Rosenthal, M., Geddes, D. M. & Alton, E. W. (2002) Bone marrow stem cells do not repopulate the healthy upper respiratory tract. Pediatr Pulmonol, 34, 251-6
43. De Poitiers, W., Lord, P. W., Biles, B. & Whimster, W. F. (1980) Bronchial gland histochemistry in lungs removed for cancer. Thorax, 35, 546-51
44. Direkze, N. C., Forbes, S. J., Brittan, M., Hunt, T., Jeffery, R., Preston, S. L., Poulsom, R., Hodivala-Dilke, K., Alison, M. R. & Wright, N. A. (2003) Multiple organ engraftment by bone-marrow-derived myofibroblasts and fibroblasts in bone-marrow-transplanted mice. Stem Cells, 21, 514-20
45. Dobbs, L. G. (1994) Alveoli and airways: possible interactions in the pathogenesis of asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 150, S31-2
46. Dobbs, L. G., Williams, M. C. & Gonzalez, R. (1988) Monoclonal antibodies specific to apical surfaces of rat alveolar type I cells bind to surfaces of cultured, but not freshly isolated, type II cells. Biochim Biophys Acta, 970, 146-56
47. Dunsmore, S. E. & Rannels, D. E. (1996) Extracellular matrix biology in the lung. Am J Physiol, 270, L3-27
48. Dupuit, F., Gaillard, D., Hinnrasky, J., Mongodin, E., De Bentzmann, S., Copreni, E. & Puchelle, E (2000) Differentiated and functional human airway epithelium regeneration in tracheal xenografts Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol, 278, L165-76
49. Edelson, J. D., Shannon, J. M. & Mason, R. J. (1988) Alkaline phosphatase: a marker of alveolar type II cell differentiation. Am Rev Respir Dis, 138, 1268-75
50. Engelhardt, J. F. (2001) Stem cell niches in the mouse airway. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol, 24, 649-52
51. Engelhardt, J. F., Yankaskas, J. R., Ernst, S. A., Yang, Y., Marino, C. R., Boucher, R. C., Cohn, J. A & Wilson, J. M. (1992a) Submucosal glands are the predominant site of CFTR expression in the human bronchus. Nat Genet, 2, 240-8
52. Engelhardt, J. F., Yankaskas, J. R. & Wilson, J. M. (1992b) In vivo retroviral gene transfer into human bronchial epithelia of xenografts. J Clin Invest, 90, 2598-607
53. Engelhardt, J. F., Schlossberg, H., Yankaskas, J. R. & Dudus, L. (1995) Progenitor cells of the adult human airway involved in submucosal gland development. Development, 121, 2031-46
54. Epperly, M. W., Guo, H., Gretton, J. E. & Greenberger, J. S. (2003) Bone marrow origin of myofibroblasts in irradiation pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol, 29, 213-24
55. Escotte, S., Catusse, C., Coraux, C. & Puchelle, E. (2004) Reconstitution of human airway tissue in the humanized xenograft model. J Cyst Fibros, 3 Suppl 2, 63-5
56. Evans, M. J., Stephens, R. J., Cabral, L. J. & Freeman, G. (1972) Cell renewal in the lungs of rats exposed to low levels of NO2. Arch Environ Health, 24, 180-8
57. Evans, M. J., Cabral, L. J., Stephens, R. J. & Freeman, G. (1973) Renewal of alveolar epithelium in the rat following exposure to NO2. Am J Pathol, 70, 175-98
58. Evans, M. J., Cabral, L. J., Stephens, R. J. & Freeman, G. (1975) Transformation of alveolar type 2 cells to type 1 cells following exposure to NO2. Exp Mol Pathol, 22, 142-50
59. Evans, M. J., Johnson, L. V., Stephens, R. J. & Freeman, G. (1976) Renewal of the terminal bronchiolar epithelium in the rat following exposure to NO2 or O3. Lab Invest, 35, 246-57
60. Evans, M. J., Cabral-Anderson, L. J. & Freeman, G. (1978) Role of the Clara cell in renewal of the bronchiolar epithelium. Lab Invest, 38, 648-53
61. Evans, M. J., Cox, R. A., Shami, S. G., Wilson, B. & Plopper, C. G. (1989) The role of basal cells in attachment of columnar cells to the basal lamina of the trachea. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol, 1, 463-9
62. Evans, M. J., Van Winkle, L. S., Fanucchi, M. V. & Plopper, C. G. (2001) Cellular and molecular characteristics of basal cells in airway epithelium. Exp Lung Res, 27, 401-15
63. Fahy, J. V. (2002) Goblet cell and mucin gene abnormalities in asthma. Chest, 122, 320S-326S
64. Flavahan, N. A., Aarhus, L. L., Rimele, T. J. & Vanhoutte, P. M. (1985) Respiratory epithelium inhibits bronchial smooth muscle tone. J Appl Physiol, 58, 834-8
65. Frasca, J. M., Auerbach, O., Parks, V. R. & Jamieson, J. D. (1968) Electron microscopic observations of the bronchial epithelium of dogs. II. Smoking dogs. Exp Mol Pathol, 9, 380-99
66. Friedmann, I. & Bird, E. S. (1971) Ciliary structure, ciliogenesis, microvilli. (Electron microscopy of the mucosa of the upper respiratory tract). Laryngoscope, 81, 1852-68
67. Gehr, P., Bachofen, M. & Weibel, E. R. (1978) The normal human lung: ultrastructure and morphometric estimation of diffusion capacity. Respir Physiol, 32, 121-40
68. Giangreco, A., Reynolds, S. D. & Stripp, B. R. (2002) Terminal bronchioles harbor a unique airway stem cell population that localizes to the bronchoalveolar duct junction. Am J Pathol, 161, 173-82
69. Gil, J., Silage, D. A. & McNiff, J. M. (1981) Distribution of vesicles in cells of air-blood barrier in the rabbit. J Appl Physiol, 50, 334-40
70. Goco, R. V., Kress, M. B. & Brantigan, O. C. (1963) Comparison of mucus glands in the tracheobronchial tree of man and animals. Ann N Y Acad Sci, 106, 555-71
71. Gomperts, B. N. & Strieter, R. M. (2007) Annu Rev Med, 58, 285-298
72. Gomperts, B. N., Belperio, J. A., Rao, P. N., Randell, S. H., Fishbein, M. C., Burdick, M. D. & Strieter, R. M. (2006) Circulating progenitor epithelial cells traffic via CXCR4/CXCL12 in response to airway injury. J Immunol, 176, 1916-27
73. Gosney, J. R. (1997) Pulmonary neuroendocrine cell system in pediatric and adult lung disease Microsc Res Tech, 37, 107-13
74. Griffiths, M. J., Bonnet, D. & Janes, S. M. (2005) Stem cells of the alveolar epithelium. Lancet, 366, 249-60
75. Groneberg, D. A., Eynott, P. R., Oates, T., Lim, S., Wu, R., Carlstedt, I., Nicholson, A. G. & Chung, K. F. (2002) Expression of MUC5AC and MUC5B mucins in normal and cystic fibrosis lung. Respir Med, 96, 81-6
76. Grove, J. E., Lutzko, C., Priller, J., Henegariu, O., Theise, N. D., Kohn, D. B. & Krause, D. S (2002) Marrow-derived cells as vehicles for delivery of gene therapy to pulmonary epithelium. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol, 27, 645-51
77. Hage, E. (1980) Light and electron microscopic characteristics of the various lung endocrine cell types. Invest Cell Pathol, 3, 345-51
78. Haies, D. M., Gil, J. & Weibel, E. R. (1981) Morphometric study of rat lung cells. I. Numerical and dimensional characteristics of parenchymal cell population. Am Rev Respir Dis, 123, 533-41
79. Hajj, R., Baranek, T., Le Naour, R., Lesimple, P., Puchelle, E. & Coraux, C. (2007) Basal cells of the human adult airway surface epithelium retain transit-amplifying cell properties. Stem Cells, 25, 139-48
80. Hallman, M. & Teramo, K. (1981) Measurement of the lecithin/sphingomyelin ratio and phosphatidylglycerol in aminotic fluid: an accurate method for the assessment of fetal lung maturity. Br J Obstet Gynaecol, 88, 806-13
81. Hashimoto, N., Jin, H., Liu, T., Chensue, S. W. & Phan, S. H. (2004) Bone marrow-derived progenitor cells in pulmonary fibrosis. J Clin Invest, 113, 243-52
82. Herzog, E. L., Chai, L. & Krause, D. S. (2003) Plasticity of marrow-derived stem cells. Blood, 102, 3483-93
83. Holt, P. G., Schon-Hegrad, M. A. & McMenamin, P. G. (1990) Dendritic cells in the respiratory tract Int Rev Immunol, 6, 139-49
84. Holtzman, M. J., Aizawa, H., Nadel, J. A. & Goetzl, E. J. (1983) Selective generation of leukotriene B4 by tracheal epithelial cells from dogs. Biochem Biophys Res Commun, 114, 1071-6
85. Hong, K. U., Reynolds, S. D., Giangreco, A., Hurley, C. M. & Stripp, B. R. (2001) Clara cell secretory protein-expressing cells of the airway neuroepithelial body microenvironment include a label-retaining subset and are critical for epithelial renewal after progenitor cell depletion. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol, 24, 671-81
86. Hong, K. U., Reynolds, S. D., Watkins, S., Fuchs, E. & Stripp, B. R. (2004a) Basal cells are a multipotent progenitor capable of renewing the bronchial epithelium. Am J Pathol, 164, 577-88
87. Hong, K. U., Reynolds, S. D., Watkins, S., Fuchs, E. & Stripp, B. R. (2004b) In vivo differentiation potential of tracheal basal cells: evidence for multipotent and unipotent subpopulations. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol, 286, L643-9
88. Hoyt, R. F., Jr., Feldman, H. & Sorokin, S. P. (1982a) Neuroepithelial bodies (NEB) and solitary endocrine cells in the hamster lung. Exp Lung Res, 3, 299-311
89. Hoyt, R. F., Jr., Sorokin, S. P. & Feldman, H. (1982b) Small-granule (neuro)endocrine cells in the infracardiac lobe of a hamster lung. Number, subtypes, and distribution. Exp Lung Res, 3, 273-98
90. Inayama, Y., Hook, G. E., Brody, A. R., Cameron, G. S., Jetten, A. M., Gilmore, L. B., Gray, T. & Nettesheim, P. (1988) The differentiation potential of tracheal basal cells. Lab Invest, 58, 706-17
91. Inayama, Y., Hook, G. E., Brody, A. R., Jetten, A. M., Gray, T., Mahler, J. & Nettesheim, P. (1989) In vitro and in vivo growth and differentiation of clones of tracheal basal cells. Am J Pathol, 134, 539-49
92. Inglis, S. K., Corboz, M. R., Taylor, A. E. & Ballard, S. T. (1997) In situ visualization of bronchial submucosal glands and their secretory response to acetylcholine. Am J Physiol, 272, L203-10
93. Ishii, G., Sangai, T., Sugiyama, K., Ito, T., Hasebe, T., Endoh, Y., Magae, J. & Ochiai, A. (2005) In vivo characterization of bone marrow-derived fibroblasts recruited into fibrotic lesions. Stem Cells, 23, 699-706
94. Ishizawa, K., Kubo, H., Yamada, M., Kobayashi, S., Numasaki, M., Ueda, S., Suzuki, T. & Sasaki, H (2004) Bone marrow-derived cells contribute to lung regeneration after elastase-induced pulmonary emphysema. FEBS Lett, 556, 249-52
95. Ito, T., Ikemi, Y., Ohmori, K., Kitamura, H. & Kanisawa, M. (1994) Airway epithelial cell changes in rats exposed to 0.25 ppm ozone for 20 months. Exp Toxicol Pathol, 46, 1-6
96. Jeffery, P. K. (1983) Morphologic features of airway surface epithelial cells and glands. Am Rev Respir Dis, 128, S14-20
97. Jeffery, P. K. (1987) The origins of secretions in the lower respiratory tract. Eur J Respir Dis Suppl, 153, 34-42
98. Jeffery, P. K. & Reid, L. (1975) New observations of rat airway epithelium: a quantitative and electron microscopic study. J Anat, 120, 295-320
99. Jiang, Y., Jahagirdar, B. N., Reinhardt, R. L., Schwartz, R. E., Keene, C. D., Ortiz-Gonzalez, X. R., Reyes, M., Lenvik, T., Lund, T., Blackstad, M., Du, J., Aldrich, S., Lisberg, A., Low, W. C., Largaespada, D. A. & Verfaillie, C. M. (2002) Pluripotency of mesenchymal stem cells derived from adult marrow. Nature, 418, 41-9
100. Johnson, D. E., Lock, J. E., Elde, R. P. & Thompson, T. R. (1982) Pulmonary neuroendocrine cells in hyaline membrane disease and bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Pediatr Res, 16, 446-54
101. Johnson, N. F. & Hubbs, A. F. (1990) Epithelial progenitor cells in the rat trachea. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol, 3, 579-85
102. Johnson, N. F., Wilson, J. S., Habbersett, R., Thomassen, D. G., Shopp, G. M. & Smith, D. M. (1990) Separation and characterization of basal and secretory cells from the rat trachea by flow cytometry Cytometry, 11, 395-405
103. Jones, A. W. & Reeve, N. L. (1978) Ultrastructural study of bleomycin-induced pulmonary changes in mice. J Pathol, 124, 227-33
104. Joo, N. S., Irokawa, T., Wu, J. V., Robbins, R. C., Whyte, R. I. & Wine, J. J. (2002) Absent secretion to vasoactive intestinal peptide in cystic fibrosis airway glands. J Biol Chem, 277, 50710-5
105. Kapanci, Y., Weibel, E. R., Kaplan, H. P. & Robinson, F. R. (1969) Pathogenesis and reversibility of the pulmonary lesions of oxygen toxicity in monkeys. II. Ultrastructural and morphometric studies Lab Invest, 20, 101-18
106. Kikkawa, Y. & Yoneda, K. (1974) The type II epithelial cell of the lung. I. Method of isolation. Lab Invest, 30, 76-84
107. Kim, C. F., Jackson, E. L., Woolfenden, A. E., Lawrence, S., Babar, I., Vogel, S., Crowley, D., Bronson, R. T. & Jacks, T. (2005) Identification of bronchioalveolar stem cells in normal lung and lung cancer. Cell, 121, 823-35
108. Kleeberger, W., Versmold, A., Rothamel, T., Glockner, S., Bredt, M., Haverich, A., Lehmann, U & Kreipe, H. (2003) Increased chimerism of bronchial and alveolar epithelium in human lung allografts undergoing chronic injury. Am J Pathol, 162, 1487-94
109. Knowles, M. R. & Boucher, R. C. (2002) Mucus clearance as a primary innate defense mechanism for mammalian airways. J Clin Invest, 109, 571-7
110. Korbling, M. & Estrov, Z. (2003) Adult stem cells for tissue repair - a new therapeutic concept? N Engl J Med, 349, 570-82
111. Kotton, D. N., Ma, B. Y., Cardoso, W. V., Sanderson, E. A., Summer, R. S., Williams, M. C. & Fine, A. (2001) Bone marrow-derived cells as progenitors of lung alveolar epithelium. Development, 128, 5181-8
112. Kotton, D. N., Fabian, A. J. & Mulligan, R. C. (2005) Failure of bone marrow to reconstitute lung epithelium. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol, 33, 328-34
113. Krause, D. S., Theise, N. D., Collector, M. I., Henegariu, O., Hwang, S., Gardner, R., Neutzel, S. & Sharkis, S. J. (2001) Multi-organ, multi-lineage engraftment by a single bone marrow-derived stem cell. Cell, 105, 369-77
114. Kuperman, D. A., Huang, X., Koth, L. L., Chang, G. H., Dolganov, G. M., Zhu, Z., Elias, J. A., Sheppard, D. & Erle, D. J. (2002) Direct effects of interleukin-13 on epithelial cells cause airway hyperreactivity and mucus overproduction in asthma. Nat Med, 8, 885-9
115. Lamb, D. & Reid, L. (1969) Histochemical types of acidic glycoprotein produced by mucous cells of the tracheobronchial glands in man. J Pathol, 98, 213-29
116. Lauweryns, J. M. & Cokelaere, M. (1973) Hypoxia-sensitive neuro-epithelial bodies. Intrapulmonary secretory neuroreceptors, modulated by the CNS. Z Zellforsch Mikrosk Anat, 145, 521-40
117. Lauweryns, J. M., De Bock, V., Guelinckx, P. & Decramer, M. (1983) Effects of unilateral hypoxia on neuroepithelial bodies in rabbit lungs. J Appl Physiol, 55, 1665-8
118. Lawson, G. W., Van Winkle, L. S., Toskala, E., Senior, R. M., Parks, W. C. & Plopper, C. G. (2002) Mouse strain modulates the role of the ciliated cell in acute tracheobronchial airway injury-distal airways. Am J Pathol, 160, 315-27
119. Li, K., Nagalla, S. R. & Spindel, E. R. (1994) A rhesus monkey model to characterize the role of gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP) in lung development. Evidence for stimulation of airway growth J Clin Invest, 94, 1605-15
120. Liu, X., Driskell, R. R. & Engelhardt, J. F. (2006) Stem cells in the lung. Methods Enzymol, 419, 285-321
121. Loi, R., Beckett, T., Goncz, K. K., Suratt, B. T. & Weiss, D. J. (2006) Limited restoration of cystic fibrosis lung epithelium in vivo with adult bone marrow-derived cells. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 173, 171-9
122. Low, F. N. (1952) Electron microscopy of the rat lung. Anat Rec, 113, 437-49
123. Luciano, L., Reale, E. & Ruska, H. (1968) [On a 'chemoreceptive' sensory cell in the trachea of the rat]. Z Zellforsch Mikrosk Anat, 85, 350-75
124. Lumsden, A. B., McLean, A. & Lamb, D. (1984) Goblet and Clara cells of human distal airways: evidence for smoking induced changes in their numbers. Thorax, 39, 844-9
125. Macklin, C. C. (1954) The pulmonary alveolar mucoid film and the pneumonocytes. Lancet, 266, 1099-1104
126. Macpherson, H., Keir, P., Webb, S., Samuel, K., Boyle, S., Bickmore, W., Forrester, L. & Dorin, J (2005) Bone marrow-derived SP cells can contribute to the respiratory tract of mice in vivo. J Cell Sci, 118, 2441-50
127. Magno, M. G. & Fishman, A. P. (1982) Origin, distribution, and blood flow of bronchial circulation in anesthetized sheep. J Appl Physiol, 53, 272-9
128. Mariassy, A. T., Plopper, C. G., St George, J. A. & Wilson, D. W. (1988a) Tracheobronchial epithelium of the sheep: IV. Lectin histochemical characterization of secretory epithelial cells. Anat Rec, 222, 49-59
129. Mariassy, A. T., St George, J. A., Nishio, S. J. & Plopper, C. G. (1988b) Tracheobronchial epithelium of the sheep: III. Carbohydrate histochemical and cytochemical characterization of secretory epithelial cells. Anat Rec, 221, 540-9
130. Mason, R. J., Williams, M. C., Moses, H. L., Mohla, S. & Berberich, M. A. (1997) Stem cells in lung development, disease, and therapy. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol, 16, 355-63
131. Mattsson, J., Jansson, M., Wernerson, A. & Hassan, M. (2004) Lung epithelial cells and type II pneumocytes of donor origin after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Transplantation, 78, 154-7
132. Matulionis, D. H. (1972) Analysis of the developing avian glycogen body. I. Ultrastructural morphology. J Morphol, 137, 463-81
133. Meyrick, B. & Reid, L. (1968) The alveolar brush cell in rat lung - a third pneumonocyte. J Ultrastruct Res, 23, 71-80
134. Meyrick, B. & Reid, L. (1970) Ultrastructure of cells in the human bronchial submucosal glands J Anat, 107, 281-99
135. Meyrick, B., Sturgess, J. M. & Reid, L. (1969) A reconstruction of the duct system and secretory tubules of the human bronchial submucosal gland. Thorax, 24, 729-36
136. Moore, B. B., Kolodsick, J. E., Thannickal, V. J., Cooke, K., Moore, T. A., Hogaboam, C., Wilke, C. A. & Toews, G. B. (2005) CCR2-mediated recruitment of fibrocytes to the alveolar space after fibrotic injury. Am J Pathol, 166, 675-84
137. Nettesheim, P., Jetten, A. M., Inayama, Y., Brody, A. R., George, M. A., Gilmore, L. B., Gray, T. & Hook, G. E. (1990) Pathways of differentiation of airway epithelial cells. Environ Health Perspect, 85, 317-29
138. Neuringer, I. P. & Randell, S. H. (2004) Stem cells and repair of lung injuries. Respir Res, 5, 6
139. Nishimura, D. Y., Fath, M., Mullins, R. F., Searby, C., Andrews, M., Davis, R., Andorf, J. L., Mykytyn, K., Swiderski, R. E., Yang, B., Carmi, R., Stone, E. M. & Sheffield, V. C (2004) Bbs2-null mice have neurosensory deficits, a defect in social dominance, and retinopathy associated with mislocalization of rhodopsin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 101, 16588-93
140. Nishimura, Y., Hamazaki, T. S., Komazaki, S., Kamimura, S., Okochi, H. & Asashima, M. (2006) Ciliated cells differentiated from mouse embryonic stem cells. Stem Cells, 24, 1381-8
141. Ortiz, L. A., Gambelli, F., McBride, C., Gaupp, D., Baddoo, M., Kaminski, N. & Phinney, D. G (2003) Mesenchymal stem cell engraftment in lung is enhanced in response to bleomycin exposure and ameliorates its fibrotic effects. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 100, 8407-11
142. Paine, R., 3rd & Simon, R. H. (1996) Expanding the frontiers of lung biology through the creative use of alveolar epithelial cells in culture. Am J Physiol, 270, L484-6
143. Paine, R., Ben-Ze'ev, A., Farmer, S. R. & Brody, J. S. (1988) The pattern of cytokeratin synthesis is a marker of type 2 cell differentiation in adult and maturing fetal lung alveolar cells. Dev Biol, 129, 505-15
144. Pan, J., Yeger, H. & Cutz, E. (2002) Neuronal developmental marker FORSE-1 identifies a putative progenitor of the pulmonary neuroendocrine cell lineage during lung development. J Histochem Cytochem, 50, 1567-78
145. Park, J., Fang, S. & Adler, K. B. (2006a) Regulation of airway mucin secretion by MARCKS protein involves the chaperones heat shock protein 70 and cysteine string protein. Proc Am Thorac Soc, 3, 493
146. Park, K. S., Wells, J. M., Zorn, A. M., Wert, S. E., Laubach, V. E., Fernandez, L. G. & Whitsett, J. A (2006b) Transdifferentiation of ciliated cells during repair of the respiratory epithelium. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol, 34, 151-7
147. Pereira, R. F., Halford, K. W., O'Hara, M. D., Leeper, D. B., Sokolov, B. P., Pollard, M. D., Bagasra, O & Prockop, D. J. (1995) Cultured adherent cells from marrow can serve as long-lasting precursor cells for bone, cartilage, and lung in irradiated mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 92, 4857-61
148. Phelps, D. S. & Floros, J. (1991) Localization of pulmonary surfactant proteins using immunohistochemistry and tissue in situ hybridization. Exp Lung Res, 17, 985-95
149. Phillips, R. J., Burdick, M. D., Hong, K., Lutz, M. A., Murray, L. A., Xue, Y. Y., Belperio, J. A., Keane, M. P. & Strieter, R. M. (2004) Circulating fibrocytes traffic to the lungs in response to CXCL12 and mediate fibrosis. J Clin Invest, 114, 438-46
150. Plopper, C. G., Dungworth, D. L. & Tyler, W. S. (1973) Ultrastructure of pulmonary alveolar macrophages in situ in lungs from rats exposed to ozone. Am Rev Respir Dis, 108, 632-8
151. Plopper, C. G., Hill, L. H. & Mariassy, A. T. (1980a) Ultrastructure of the nonciliated bronchiolar epithelial (Clara) cell of mammalian lung. III. A study of man with comparison of 15 mammalian species. Exp Lung Res, 1, 171-80
152. Plopper, C. G., Mariassy, A. T. & Hill, L. H. (1980b) Ultrastructure of the nonciliated bronchiolar epithelial (Clara) cell of mammalian lung: I. A comparison of rabbit, guinea pig, rat, hamster, and mouse. Exp Lung Res, 1, 139-54
153. Plopper, C. G., Mariassy, A. T. & Hill, L. H. (1980c) Ultrastructure of the nonciliated bronchiolar epithelial (Clara) cell of mammalian lung: II. A comparison of horse, steer, sheep, dog, and cat Exp Lung Res, 1, 155-69
154. Plopper, C. G., Alley, J. L., Serabjitsingh, C. J. & Philpot, R. M. (1983a) Cytodifferentiation of the nonciliated bronchiolar epithelial (Clara) cell during rabbit lung maturation: an ultrastructural and morphometric study. Am J Anat, 167, 329-57
155. Plopper, C. G., Halsebo, J. E., Berger, W. J., Sonstegard, K. S. & Nettesheim, P. (1983b) Distribution of nonciliated bronchiolar epithelial (Clara) cells in intra- and extrapulmonary airways of the rabbit Exp Lung Res, 5, 79-98
156. Plopper, C. G., Mariassy, A. T. & Lollini, L. O. (1983c) Structure as revealed by airway dissection A comparison of mammalian lungs. Am Rev Respir Dis, 128, S4-7
157. Plopper, C. G., Mariassy, A. T., Wilson, D. W., Alley, J. L., Nishio, S. J. & Nettesheim, P. (1983d) Comparison of nonciliated tracheal epithelial cells in six mammalian species: ultrastructure and population densities. Exp Lung Res, 5, 281-94
158. Plopper, C. G., Weir, A. J., Nishio, S. J., Cranz, D. L. & St George, J. A. (1986) Tracheal submucosal gland development in the rhesus monkey, Macaca mulatta: ultrastructure and histochemistry. Anat Embryol (Berl), 174, 167-78
159. Plopper, C. G., Cranz, D. L., Kemp, L., Serabjit-Singh, C. J. & Philpot, R. M. (1987) Immunohistochemical demonstration of cytochrome P-450 monooxygenase in Clara cells throughout the tracheobronchial airways of the rabbit. Exp Lung Res, 13, 59-68
160. Plopper, C. G., Heidsiek, J. G., Weir, A. J., George, J. A. & Hyde, D. M. (1989) Tracheobronchial epithelium in the adult rhesus monkey: a quantitative histochemical and ultrastructural study. Am J Anat, 184, 31-40
161. Prockop, D. J. (2003) Further proof of the plasticity of adult stem cells and their role in tissue repair J Cell Biol, 160, 807-9
162. Puchelle, E. & Peault, B. (2000) Human airway xenograft models of epithelial cell regeneration Respir Res, 1, 125-8
163. Reddy, R., Buckley, S., Doerken, M., Barsky, L., Weinberg, K., Anderson, K. D., Warburton, D. & Driscoll, B. (2004) Isolation of a putative progenitor subpopulation of alveolar epithelial type 2 cells. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol, 286, L658-67
164. Reynolds, S. D., Giangreco, A., Power, J. H. & Stripp, B. R. (2000a) Neuroepithelial bodies of pulmonary airways serve as a reservoir of progenitor cells capable of epithelial regeneration. Am J Pathol, 156, 269-78
165. Reynolds, S. D., Hong, K. U., Giangreco, A., Mango, G. W., Guron, C., Morimoto, Y. & Stripp, B. R. (2000b) Conditional clara cell ablation reveals a self-renewing progenitor function of pulmonary neuroendocrine cells. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol, 278, L1256-63
166. Reynolds, S. D., Giangreco, A., Hong, K. U., McGrath, K. E., Ortiz, L. A. & Stripp, B. R. (2004) Airway injury in lung disease pathophysiology: selective depletion of airway stem and progenitor cell pools potentiates lung inflammation and alveolar dysfunction. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol, 287, L1256-65
167. Rhodin, J. A. (1966) The ciliated cell. Ultrastructure and function of the human tracheal mucosa. Am Rev Respir Dis, 93, Suppl:1-15
168. Rhodin, J. & Dalhamn, T. (1956) Electron microscopy of the tracheal ciliated mucosa in rat Z Zellforsch Mikrosk Anat, 44, 345-412
169. Rippon, H. J., Ali, N. N., Polak, J. M. & Bishop, A. E. (2004) Initial observations on the effect of medium composition on the differentiation of murine embryonic stem cells to alveolar type II cells Cloning Stem Cells, 6, 49-56
170. Rippon, H. J., Polak, J. M., Qin, M. & Bishop, A. E. (2006) Derivation of distal lung epithelial progenitors from murine embryonic stem cells using a novel three-step differentiation protocol Stem Cells, 24, 1389-98
171. Rogers, D. F. (2000) Mucus pathophysiology in COPD: differences to asthma, and pharmacotherapy Monaldi Arch Chest Dis, 55, 324-32
172. Rogers, D. F. (2004) Airway mucus hypersecretion in asthma: an undervalued pathology? Curr Opin Pharmacol, 4, 241-50
173. Rojas, M., Xu, J., Woods, C. R., Mora, A. L., Spears, W., Roman, J. & Brigham, K. L. (2005) Bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells in repair of the injured lung. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol, 33, 145-52
174. Rooney, S. A., Young, S. L. & Mendelson, C. R. (1994) Molecular and cellular processing of lung surfactant. Faseb J, 8, 957-67
175. Rose, M. C., Nickola, T. J. & Voynow, J. A. (2001) Airway mucus obstruction: mucin glycoproteins, MUC gene regulation and goblet cell hyperplasia. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol, 25, 533-7
176. Ryan, U. S., Ryan, J. W. & Smith, D. S. (1975) Alveolar type II cells: studies on the mode of release of lamellar bodies. Tissue Cell, 7, 587-99
177. Salinas, D., Haggie, P. M., Thiagarajah, J. R., Song, Y., Rosbe, K., Finkbeiner, W. E., Nielson, D. W. & Verkman, A. S. (2005) Submucosal gland dysfunction as a primary defect in cystic fibrosis. Faseb J, 19, 431-3
178. Samadikuchaksaraei, A., Cohen, S., Isaac, K., Rippon, H. J., Polak, J. M., Bielby, R. C. & Bishop, A. E. (2006) Derivation of distal airway epithelium from human embryonic stem cells. Tissue Eng, 12, 867-75
179. Satir, P. (1999) The cilium as a biological nanomachine. Faseb J, 13 Suppl 2. S235-7
180. Scheuermann, D. W. (1987) Morphology and cytochemistry of the endocrine epithelial system in the lung. Int Rev Cytol, 106, 35-88
181. Schmidt, M., Sun, G., Stacey, M. A., Mori, L. & Mattoli, S. (2003) Identification of circulating fibrocytes as precursors of bronchial myofibroblasts in asthma. J Immunol, 171, 380-9
182. Schneeberger, E. E. & Hamelin, M. (1984) Interaction of serum proteins with lung endothelial glycocalyx: its effect on endothelial permeability. Am J Physiol, 247, H206-17
183. Schoeberlein, A., Holzgreve, W., Dudler, L., Hahn, S. & Surbek, D. V. (2005) Tissue-specific engraftment after in utero transplantation of allogeneic mesenchymal stem cells into sheep fetuses Am J Obstet Gynecol, 192, 1044-52
184. Serafini, S. M. & Michaelson, E. D. (1977) Length and distribution of cilia in human and canine airways. Bull Eur Physiopathol Respir, 13, 551-9
185. Shannon, J. M., Jennings, S. D. & Nielsen, L. D. (1992) Modulation of alveolar type II cell differentiated function in vitro. Am J Physiol, 262, L427-36
186. Shimizu, T., Nishihara, M., Kawaguchi, S. & Sakakura, Y. (1994) Expression of phenotypic markers during regeneration of rat tracheal epithelium following mechanical injury. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol, 11, 85-94
187. Simionescu, D. & Simionescu, M. (1983) Differentiated distribution of the cell surface charge on the alveolar-capillary unit. Characteristic paucity of anionic sites on the air-blood barrier. Microvasc Res, 25, 85-100
188. Singer, M., Martin, L. D., Vargaftig, B. B., Park, J., Gruber, A. D., Li, Y. & Adler, K. B. (2004) A MARCKS-related peptide blocks mucus hypersecretion in a mouse model of asthma. Nat Med, 10, 193-6
189. Singh, G., Katyal, S. L., Brown, W. E., Kennedy, A. L., Singh, U. & Wong-Chong, M. L. (1990) Clara cell 10 kDa protein (CC10): comparison of structure and function to uteroglobin. Biochim Biophys Acta, 1039, 348-55
190. Sirois, P. & Cadieux, A. (1986) Converting enzyme activity of free airway cells. Inflammation, 10, 293-302
191. Sleigh, M. A., Blake, J. R. & Liron, N. (1988) The propulsion of mucus by cilia. Am Rev Respir Dis, 137, 726-41
192. Sorokin, S. P. & Hoyt, R. F., Jr. (1982) Development of neuroepithelial bodies and solitary endocrine cells in fetal rabbit lungs. II. Nonspecific esterase as an indicator of early maturation. Exp Lung Res, 3, 261-72
193. Sorokin, S. P., Hoyt, R. F., Jr. & McNelly, N. A. (1989) Nonimmune-mediated phagocytosis by 'premedullary' lung macrophages: effects of concanavalin A, tuftsin, and macrophage-inhibitory peptide. Anat Rec, 223, 55-61
194. Spencer, H., Rampling, D., Aurora, P., Bonnet, D., Hart, S. L. & Jaffe, A. (2005) Transbronchial biopsies provide longitudinal evidence for epithelial chimerism in children following sex mismatched lung transplantation. Thorax, 60, 60-2
195. Spicer, S. S., Chakrin, L. W., Wardell, J. R., Jr. & Kendrick, W. (1971) Histochemistry of mucosubstances in the canine and human respiratory tract. Lab Invest, 25, 483-90
196. Stevens, T. P., McBride, J. T., Peake, J. L., Pinkerton, K. E. & Stripp, B. R. (1997) Cell proliferation contributes to PNEC hyperplasia after acute airway injury. Am J Physiol, 272, L486-93
197. Sunday, M. E. & Willett, C. G. (1992) Induction and spontaneous regression of pulmonary neuroendocrine cell hyperplasia in a hamster model. Chest, 101, 21S
198. Sunday, M. E., Kaplan, L. M., Motoyama, E., Chin, W. W. & Spindel, E. R. (1988) Gastrin-releasing peptide (mammalian bombesin) gene expression in health and disease. Lab Invest, 59, 5-24
199. Suratt, B. T., Cool, C. D., Serls, A. E., Chen, L., Varella-Garcia, M., Shpall, E. J., Brown, K. K. & Worthen, G. S. (2003) Human pulmonary chimerism after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 168, 318-22
200. Tateishi, R. (1973) Distribution of argyrophil cells in adult human lungs. Arch Pathol, 96, 198-202
201. Temann, U. A., Prasad, B., Gallup, M. W., Basbaum, C., Ho, S. B., Flavell, R. A. & Rankin, J. A (1997) A novel role for murine IL-4 in vivo: induction of MUC5AC gene expression and mucin hypersecretion. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol, 16, 471-8
202. Theise, N. D., Henegariu, O., Grove, J., Jagirdar, J., Kao, P. N., Crawford, J. M., Badve, S., Saxena, R & Krause, D. S. (2002) Radiation pneumonitis in mice: a severe injury model for pneumocyte engraftment from bone marrow. Exp Hematol, 30, 1333-8
203. Tyler, W. S. (1983) Comparative subgross anatomy of lungs. Pleuras, interlobular septa, and distal airways. Am Rev Respir Dis, 128, S32-6
204. Tyner, J. W., Kim, E. Y., Ide, K., Pelletier, M. R., Roswit, W. T., Morton, J. D., Battaile, J. T., Patel, A. C., Patterson, G. A., Castro, M., Spoor, M. S., You, Y., Brody, S. L. & Holtzman, M. J (2006) Blocking airway mucous cell metaplasia by inhibiting EGFR antiapoptosis and IL-13 transdifferentiation signals. J Clin Invest, 116, 309-21
205. Uhal, B. D. (1997) Cell cycle kinetics in the alveolar epithelium. Am J Physiol, 272, L1031-45
206. Vassilopoulos, G., Wang, P. R. & Russell, D. W. (2003) Transplanted bone marrow regenerates liver by cell fusion. Nature, 422, 901-4
207. Vestbo, J., Prescott, E. & Lange, P. (1996) Association of chronic mucus hypersecretion with FEV1 decline and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease morbidity. Copenhagen City Heart Study Group Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 153, 1530-5
208. Vogel, G. (1998) Interleukin-13's key role in asthma shown. Science, 282, 2168
209. Wagers, A. J., Christensen, J. L. & Weissman, I. L. (2002) Cell fate determination from stem cells Gene Ther, 9, 606-12
210. Wang, D., Haviland, D. L., Burns, A. R., Zsigmond, E. & Wetsel, R. A. (2007) A pure population of lung alveolar epithelial type II cells derived from human embryonic stem cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 104, 4449-54
211. Wang, X., Willenbring, H., Akkari, Y., Torimaru, Y., Foster, M., Al-Dhalimy, M., Lagasse, E., Finegold, M., Olson, S. & Grompe, M. (2003) Cell fusion is the principal source of bone-marrow-derived hepatocytes. Nature, 422, 897-901
212. Warburton, D., Bellusci, S., De Langhe, S., Del Moral, P. M., Fleury, V., Mailleux, A., Tefft, D., Unbekandt, M., Wang, K. & Shi, W. (2005) Molecular mechanisms of early lung specification and branching morphogenesis. Pediatr Res, 57, 26R-37R
213. Watson, J. H. & Brinkman, G. L. (1964) Electron microscopy of the epithelial cells of normal and bronchitic human bronchus. Am Rev Respir Dis, 90, 851-66
214. Weiss, D. J., Berberich, M. A., Borok, Z., Gail, D. B., Kolls, J. K., Penland, C. & Prockop, D J. (2006) Adult stem cells, lung biology, and lung disease. NHLBI/Cystic Fibrosis Foundation Workshop. Proc Am Thorac Soc, 3, 193-207
215. Wharton, J., Polak, J. M., Bloom, S. R., Ghatei, M. A., Solcia, E., Brown, M. R. & Pearse, A. G (1978) Bombesin-like immunoreactivity in the lung. Nature, 273, 769-70
216. Whittaker, L., Niu, N., Temann, U. A., Stoddard, A., Flavell, R. A., Ray, A., Homer, R. J. & Cohn, L (2002) Interleukin-13 mediates a fundamental pathway for airway epithelial mucus induced by CD4 T cells and interleukin-9. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol, 27, 593-602
217. Widdicombe, J. G. (1987a) Role of lipids in airway function. Eur J Respir Dis Suppl, 153, 197-204
218. Widdicombe, J. H. (1987b) Fluid transport by airway epithelia. Biorheology, 24, 551-5
219. Widdicombe, J. G. & Pack, R. J. (1982) The Clara cell. Eur J Respir Dis, 63, 202-20
220. Widdicombe, J. H., Chen, L. L., Sporer, H., Choi, H. K., Pecson, I. S. & Bastacky, S. J. (2001) Distribution of tracheal and laryngeal mucous glands in some rodents and the rabbit. J Anat, 198, 207-21
221. Williams, M. C. (1984) Endocytosis in alveolar type II cells: effect of charge and size of tracers. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 81, 6054-8
222. Williams, M. C. & Mason, R. J. (1977) Development of the type II cell in the fetal rat lung. Am Rev Respir Dis, 115, 37-47
223. Wills-Karp, M., Luyimbazi, J., Xu, X., Schofield, B., Neben, T. Y., Karp, C. L. & Donaldson, D. D (1998) Interleukin-13: central mediator of allergic asthma. Science, 282, 2258-61
224. Wright, J. R. & Dobbs, L. G. (1991) Regulation of pulmonary surfactant secretion and clearance Annu Rev Physiol, 53, 395-414
225. Wright, J. R., Wager, R. E., Hamilton, R. L., Huang, M. & Clements, J. A. (1986) Uptake of lung surfactant subfractions into lamellar bodies of adult rabbit lungs. J Appl Physiol, 60, 817-25
226. Yamada, M., Kubo, H., Kobayashi, S., Ishizawa, K., Numasaki, M., Ueda, S., Suzuki, T. & Sasaki, H. (2004) Bone marrow-derived progenitor cells are important for lung repair after lipopolysaccharide-induced lung injury. J Immunol, 172, 1266-72
227. Yamada, M., Kubo, H., Ishizawa, K., Kobayashi, S., Shinkawa, M. & Sasaki, H. (2005) Increased circulating endothelial progenitor cells in patients with bacterial pneumonia: evidence that bone marrow derived cells contribute to lung repair. Thorax, 60, 410-3
228. Yamaya, M., Finkbeiner, W. E. & Widdicombe, J. H. (1991) Ion transport by cultures of human tracheobronchial submucosal glands. Am J Physiol, 261, L485-90
229. Yoneda, K. & Walzer, P. D. (1984) The effect of corticosteroid treatment on the cell surface glycocalyx of the rat pulmonary alveolus: relevance to the host - parasite relationship in Pneumocystis carinii infection. Br J Exp Pathol, 65, 347-54
230. Zander, D. S., Baz, M. A., Cogle, C. R., Visner, G. A., Theise, N. D. & Crawford, J. M. (2005) Bone marrow-derived stem-cell repopulation contributes minimally to the Type II pneumocyte pool in transplanted human lungs. Transplantation, 80, 206-12
231. Zepeda, M. L., Chinoy, M. R. & Wilson, J. M. (1995) Characterization of stem cells in human airway capable of reconstituting a fully differentiated bronchial epithelium. Somat Cell Mol Genet, 21, 61-73