Innate host barriers to viral trafficking and population diversity. Lessons learned from poliovirus

Advances in Virus Research

Volumn 77, Issue C, 2010, Pages 85-118

  Pfeiffer, Julie K ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS SOUTHWESTERN MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANIMAL; BOOK; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT; GENETICS; HOST PATHOGEN INTERACTION; HUMAN; IMMUNOLOGY; MUTATION; PATHOGENICITY; POLIOMYELITIS; POLIOMYELITIS VIRUS; VIROLOGY; VIRULENCE;

ANIMALS; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT; HOST-PATHOGEN INTERACTIONS; HUMANS; MUTATION; POLIOMYELITIS; POLIOVIRUS; VIRULENCE;

EID: 77958175190     PISSN: 00653527     EISSN: 15578399     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-385034-8.00004-1     Document Type: Book

References (209)

1. Amerongen H.M., Wilson G.A., Fields B.N., Neutra M.R. Proteolytic processing of reovirus is required for adherence to intestinal M cells. J. Virol. 1994, 68(12):8428-8432.
2. Anderson G.W., Skaar A.E. Poliomyelitis occurring after antigen injections. Pediatrics 1951, 7(6):741-759.
3. Arita I., Nakane M., Fenner F. Public health. Is polio eradication realistic?. Science 2006, 312(5775):852-854.
4. Arita M., Ohka S., Sasaki Y., Nomoto A. Multiple pathways for establishment of poliovirus infection. Virus Res. 1999, 62(2):97-105.
5. Arnold J.J., Vignuzzi M., Stone J.K., Andino R., Cameron C.E. Remote site control of an active site fidelity checkpoint in a viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. J. Biol. Chem. 2005, 280(27):25706-25716.
6. Atuma C., Strugala V., Allen A., Holm L. The adherent gastrointestinal mucus gel layer: Thickness and physical state in vivo. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 2001, 280(5):G922-G929.
7. Ayabe T., Satchell D.P., Wilson C.L., Parks W.C., Selsted M.E., Ouellette A.J. Secretion of microbicidal alpha-defensins by intestinal Paneth cells in response to bacteria. Nat. Immunol. 2000, 1(2):113-118.
8. Bass D.M., Bodkin D., Dambrauskas R., Trier J.S., Fields B.N., Wolf J.L. Intraluminal proteolytic activation plays an important role in replication of type 1 reovirus in the intestines of neonatal mice. J. Virol. 1990, 64(4):1830-1833.
9. Bass D.M., Trier J.S., Dambrauskas R., Wolf J.L. Reovirus type I infection of small intestinal epithelium in suckling mice and its effect on M cells. Lab. Invest. 1988, 58(2):226-235.
10. Baury B., Masson D., McDermott B.M., Jarry A., Blottiere H.M., Blanchardie P., Laboisse C.L., Lustenberger P., Racaniello V.R., Denis M.G. Identification of secreted CD155 isoforms. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2003, 309(1):175-182.
11. Bergstrom K.S., Kissoon-Singh V., Gibson D.L., Ma C., Montero M., Sham H.P., Ryz N., Huang T., Velcich A., Finlay B.B., Chadee K., Vallance B.A. Muc2 protects against lethal infectious colitis by disassociating pathogenic and commensal bacteria from the colonic mucosa. PLoS Pathog. 2010, 6(5):e1000902.
12. Bernhardt G., Bibb J.A., Bradley J., Wimmer E. Molecular characterization of the cellular receptor for poliovirus. Virology 1994, 199(1):105-113.
13. Blinzinger K., Simon J., Magrath D., Boulger L. Poliovirus crystals within the endoplasmic reticulum of endothelial and mononuclear cells in the monkey spinal cord. Science 1969, 163(873):1336-1337.
14. Bodian D. Pathogenesis of poliomyelitis. Am. J. Public Health Nations Health 1952, 42(11):1388-1402.
15. Bodian D. Experimental studies on passive immunization against poliomyelitis III. Passive-active immunization and pathogenesis after virus feeding in chimpanzees. Am. J. Hyg. 1953, 58(1):81-100.
16. Bodian D. Viremia in experimental poliomyelitis II. Viremia and the mechanism of the provoking effect of injections or trauma. Am. J. Hyg. 1954, 60(3):358-370.
17. Bodian D. Emerging concept of poliomyelitis infection. Science 1955, 122(3159):105-108.
18. Bodian D. Viremia, invasiveness, and the influence of injections. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1955, 61(4):877-882.
19. Bodian D., Horstmann D.M. Polioviruses. Viral and Rickettsial Infections of Man 1965, 430-473. Lippincott, Philadelphia. F.L. Horsfall, I. Tamm (Eds.).
20. Bodian D., Howe H. An experimental study of the role of neurons in the dissemination of poliomyelitis virus in the nervous system. Brain 1940, 63:135-162.
21. Bodian D., Paffenbarger R.S. Viremia and antibody response of abortive poliomyelitis cases. Fed. Proc. 1953, 12:437.
22. Boot H.J., Kasteel D.T., Buisman A.M., Kimman T.G. Excretion of wild-type and vaccine-derived poliovirus in the feces of poliovirus receptor-transgenic mice. J. Virol. 2003, 77(11):6541-6545.
23. Boshuizen J.A., Reimerink J.H., Korteland-van Male A.M., van Ham V.J., Koopmans M.P., Buller H.A., Dekker J., Einerhand A.W. Changes in small intestinal homeostasis, morphology, and gene expression during rotavirus infection of infant mice. J. Virol. 2003, 77(24):13005-13016.
24. Brandenburg B., Lee L.Y., Lakadamyali M., Rust M.J., Zhuang X., Hogle J.M. Imaging poliovirus entry in live cells. PLoS Biol. 2007, 5(7):e183.
25. Buck C.B., Day P.M., Thompson C.D., Lubkowski J., Lu W., Lowy D.R., Schiller J.T. Human alpha-defensins block papillomavirus infection. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2006, 103(5):1516-1521.
26. Buisman A.M., Sonsma J.A., van Wijk M.G., Vermeulen J.P., Roholl P.J., Kimman T.G. Pathogenesis of poliovirus infection in PVRTg mice: Poliovirus replicates in peritoneal macrophages. J. Gen. Virol. 2003, 84(Pt 10):2819-2828.
27. Card J.P., Whealy M.E., Robbins A.K., Moore R.Y., Enquist L.W. Two alpha-herpesvirus strains are transported differentially in the rodent visual system. Neuron 1991, 6(6):957-969.
28. Carrillo C., Borca M., Moore D., Morgan D., Sobrino F. In vivo analysis of the stability and fitness of variants recovered from foot-and-mouth disease virus quasispecies. J. Gen. Virol. 1998, 79:1699-1706.
29. Carrillo C., Lu Z., Borca M.V., Vagnozzi A., Kutish G.F., Rock D.L. Genetic and phenotypic variation of foot-and-mouth disease virus during serial passages in a natural host. J. Virol. 2007, 81(20):11341-11351.
30. Chao L. Fitness of RNA virus decreased by Muller's ratchet. Nature 1990, 348(6300):454-455.
31. Chen C.C., Baylor M., Bass D.M. Murine intestinal mucins inhibit rotavirus infection. Gastroenterology 1993, 105(1):84-92.
32. Chumakov M., Voroshilova M., Shindarov L., Lavrova I., Gracheva L., Koroleva G., Vasilenko S., Brodvarova I., Nikolova M., Gyurova S., Gacheva M., Mitov G., et al. Enterovirus 71 isolated from cases of epidemic poliomyelitis-like disease in Bulgaria. Arch. Virol. 1979, 60(3-4):329-340.
33. Clark S.M., Roth J.R., Clark M.L., Barnett B.B., Spendlove R.S. Trypsin enhancement of rotavirus infectivity: Mechanism of enhancement. J. Virol. 1981, 39(3):816-822.
34. Clarke D.K., Duarte E.A., Moya A., Elena S.F., Domingo E., Holland J. Genetic bottlenecks and population passages cause profound fitness differences in RNA viruses. J. Virol. 1993, 67(1):222-228.
35. Couderc T., Barzu T., Horaud F., Crainic R. Poliovirus permissivity and specific receptor expression on human endothelial cells. Virology 1990, 174(1):95-102.
36. Crotty S., Cameron C.E., Andino R. RNA virus error catastrophe: Direct molecular test by using ribavirin. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2001, 98(12):6895-6900.
37. Crotty S., Hix L., Sigal L.J., Andino R. Poliovirus pathogenesis in a new poliovirus receptor transgenic mouse model: Age-dependent paralysis and a mucosal route of infection. J. Gen. Virol. 2002, 83(Pt 7):1707-1720.
38. Crotty S., Maag D., Arnold J.J., Zhong W., Lau J.Y., Hong Z., Andino R., Cameron C.E. The broad-spectrum antiviral ribonucleoside ribavirin is an RNA virus mutagen. Nat. Med. 2000, 6(12):1375-1379.
39. Daher K.A., Selsted M.E., Lehrer R.I. Direct inactivation of viruses by human granulocyte defensins. J. Virol. 1986, 60(3):1068-1074.
40. Dai J., Wang P., Bai F., Town T., Fikrig E. Icam-1 participates in the entry of West Nile virus into the central nervous system. J. Virol. 2008, 82(8):4164-4168.
41. Dekker J., Rossen J.W., Buller H.A., Einerhand A.W. The MUC family: An obituary. Trends Biochem. Sci. 2002, 27(3):126-131.
42. Delhaye S., Paul S., Blakqori G., Minet M., Weber F., Staeheli P., Michiels T. Neurons produce type I interferon during viral encephalitis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2006, 103(20):7835-7840.
43. Dermody T.S., Kirchner E., Guglielmi K.M., Stehle T. Immunoglobulin superfamily virus receptors and the evolution of adaptive immunity. PLoS Pathog. 2009, 5(11):e1000481.
44. Domingo E., Escarmis C., Sevilla N., Moya A., Elena S.F., Quer J., Novella I.S., Holland J.J. Basic concepts in RNA virus evolution. FASEB J. 1996, 10(8):859-864.
45. Domingo E., Holland J.J. RNA virus mutations and fitness for survival. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 1997, 51:151-178.
46. Domingo E., Sabo D., Taniguchi T., Weissmann C. Nucleotide sequence heterogeneity of an RNA phage population. Cell 1978, 13(4):735-744.
47. Drake J.W. Rates of spontaneous mutation among RNA viruses. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1993, 90(9):4171-4175.
48. Drake J.W., Charlesworth B., Charlesworth D., Crow J.F. Rates of spontaneous mutation. Genetics 1998, 148(4):1667-1686.
49. Duarte E., Clarke D., Moya A., Domingo E., Holland J. Rapid fitness losses in mammalian RNA virus clones due to Muller's ratchet. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1992, 89(13):6015-6019.
50. Duarte E.A., Clarke D.K., Moya A., Elena S.F., Domingo E., Holland J. Many-trillionfold amplification of single RNA virus particles fails to overcome the Muller's ratchet effect. J. Virol. 1993, 67(6):3620-3623.
51. Duarte E.A., Novella I.S., Ledesma S., Clarke D.K., Moya A., Elena S.F., Domingo E., Holland J.J. Subclonal components of consensus fitness in an RNA virus clone. J. Virol. 1994, 68(7):4295-4301.
52. Eberle K.E., Nguyen V.T., Freistadt M.S. Low levels of poliovirus replication in primary human monocytes: Possible interactions with lymphocytes. Arch. Virol. 1995, 140(12):2135-2150.
53. Eigen M. Selforganization of matter and the evolution of biological macromolecules. Naturwissenschaften 1971, 58(10):465-523.
54. Eigen M. On the nature of virus quasispecies. Trends Microbiol. 1996, 4(6):216-218.
55. Escarmis C., Davila M., Charpentier N., Bracho A., Moya A., Domingo E. Genetic lesions associated with Muller's ratchet in an RNA virus. J. Mol. Biol. 1996, 264(2):255-267.
56. Estes M.K., Graham D.Y., Mason B.B. Proteolytic enhancement of rotavirus infectivity: Molecular mechanisms. J. Virol. 1981, 39(3):879-888.
57. Ewe K., Schwartz S., Petersen S., Press A.G. Inflammation does not decrease intraluminal pH in chronic inflammatory bowel disease. Dig. Dis. Sci. 1999, 44(7):1434-1439.
58. Excoffon K.J., Guglielmi K.M., Wetzel J.D., Gansemer N.D., Campbell J.A., Dermody T.S., Zabner J. Reovirus preferentially infects the basolateral surface and is released from the apical surface of polarized human respiratory epithelial cells. J. Infect. Dis. 2008, 197(8):1189-1197.
59. Faber H.K., Silverberg R.J., Dong L. Studies on entry and egress of poliomyelitic infection VI. Centrifugal spread of the virus into peripheral nerve with notes on its possible implications. J. Exp. Med. 1953, 97(3):455-465.
60. Fairbrother R.W., Hurst E.W. The pathogenesis of poliomyelitits. J. Pathol. Bacteriol. 1930, 33:17-45.
61. Farci P., Strazzera R., Alter H.J., Farci S., Degioannis D., Coiana A., Peddis G., Usai F., Serra G., Chessa L., Diaz G., Balestrieri A., et al. Early changes in hepatitis C viral quasispecies during interferon therapy predict the therapeutic outcome. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2002, 99(5):3081-3086.
62. Felsenstein J. The evolutionary advantage of recombination. Genetics 1974, 78(2):737-756.
63. Fiette L., Aubert C., Muller U., Huang S., Aguet M., Brahic M., Bureau J.F. Theiler's virus infection of 129Sv mice that lack the interferon alpha/beta or interferon gamma receptors. J. Exp. Med. 1995, 181(6):2069-2076.
64. Freistadt M.S., Eberle K.E. Correlation between poliovirus type 1 Mahoney replication in blood cells and neurovirulence. J. Virol. 1996, 70(9):6486-6492.
65. Freistadt M.S., Fleit H.B., Wimmer E. Poliovirus receptor on human blood cells: A possible extraneural site of poliovirus replication. Virology 1993, 195(2):798-803.
66. Friedman H.M., Macarak E.J., MacGregor R.R., Wolfe J., Kefalides N.A. Virus infection of endothelial cells. J. Infect. Dis. 1981, 143(2):266-273.
67. Garcia-Sastre A., Durbin R.K., Zheng H., Palese P., Gertner R., Levy D.E., Durbin J.E. The role of interferon in influenza virus tissue tropism. J. Virol. 1998, 72(11):8550-8558.
68. Georgescu M.M., Balanant J., Ozden S., Crainic R. Random selection: A model for poliovirus infection of the central nervous system. J. Gen. Virol. 1997, 78(Pt 8):1819-1828.
69. Georgescu M.M., Delpeyroux F., Tardy-Panit M., Balanant J., Combiescu M., Combiescu A.A., Guillot S., Crainic R. High diversity of poliovirus strains isolated from the central nervous system from patients with vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis. J. Virol. 1994, 68(12):8089-8101.
70. Gralinski L.E., Ashley S.L., Dixon S.D., Spindler K.R. Mouse adenovirus type 1-induced breakdown of the blood-brain barrier. J. Virol. 2009, 83(18):9398-9410.
71. Gratton S., Cheynier R., Dumaurier M.J., Oksenhendler E., Wain-Hobson S. Highly restricted spread of HIV-1 and multiply infected cells within splenic germinal centers. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2000, 97(26):14566-14571.
72. Griffin D.E. Immune responses to RNA-virus infections of the CNS. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2003, 3(6):493-502.
73. Grist N.R., Bell E.J., Assaad F. Enteroviruses in human disease. Prog. Med. Virol. 1978, 24:114-157.
74. Gromeier M., Nomoto A. Determinants of poliovirus pathogenesis. Molecular Biology of Picornaviruses 2002, 367-379. ASM Press, Washington, DC. B. Semler, E. Wimmer (Eds.).
75. Gromeier M., Wimmer E. Mechanism of injury-provoked poliomyelitis. J. Virol. 1998, 72(6):5056-5060.
76. Gropp R., Frye M., Wagner T.O., Bargon J. Epithelial defensins impair adenoviral infection: Implication for adenovirus-mediated gene therapy. Hum. Gene Ther. 1999, 10(6):957-964.
77. Guyer B., Bisong A.A., Gould J., Brigaud M., Aymard M. Injections and paralytic poliomyelitis in tropical Africa. Bull. World Health Organ. 1980, 58(2):285-291.
78. Haaland R.E., Hawkins P.A., Salazar-Gonzalez J., Johnson A., Tichacek A., Karita E., Manigart O., Mulenga J., Keele B.F., Shaw G.M., Hahn B.H., Allen S.A., et al. Inflammatory genital infections mitigate a severe genetic bottleneck in heterosexual transmission of subtype A and C HIV-1. PLoS Pathog. 2009, 5(1):e1000274.
79. Hazrati E., Galen B., Lu W., Wang W., Ouyang Y., Keller M.J., Lehrer R.I., Herold B.C. Human alpha- and beta-defensins block multiple steps in herpes simplex virus infection. J. Immunol. 2006, 177(12):8658-8666.
80. Hill A.B., Knowelden J. Inoculation and poliomyelitis; a statistical investigation in England and Wales in 1949. Br. Med. J. 1950, 2(4669):1-6.
81. Holland J.J., Domingo E., de la Torre J.C., Steinhauer D.A. Mutation frequencies at defined single codon sites in vesicular stomatitis virus and poliovirus can be increased only slightly by chemical mutagenesis. J. Virol. 1990, 64(8):3960-3962.
82. Horstmann D.M. Poliomyelitis: Severity and type of disease in different age groups. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1955, 61(4):956-967.
83. Horstmann D.M., Mc C.R., Mascola A.D. Viremia in human poliomyelitis. J. Exp. Med. 1954, 99(4):355-369.
84. Horstmann D.M., Mc C.R., Mascola A.D., Riordan J.T. Viremia in human and experimental poliomyelitis. AMA Arch. Intern. Med. 1954, 94(5):859-862.
85. Howe H., Bodian D. Neuronal mechanisms in poliomyelitis. New York Commonwealth Fund 1942, Oxford University Press, London. H. Milford (Ed.).
86. Howe H.A., Bodian D. The effect of spinal transection on the spread of poliomyelitis virus in the nervous system of the Rhesus Monkey. Bull. Johns Hopkins Hosp. 1941, 69:86.
87. Ida-Hosonuma M., Iwasaki T., Taya C., Sato Y., Li J., Nagata N., Yonekawa H., Koike S. Comparison of neuropathogenicity of poliovirus in two transgenic mouse strains expressing human poliovirus receptor with different distribution patterns. J. Gen. Virol. 2002, 83(Pt 5):1095-1105.
88. Ida-Hosonuma M., Iwasaki T., Yoshikawa T., Nagata N., Sato Y., Sata T., Yoneyama M., Fujita T., Taya C., Yonekawa H., Koike S. The alpha/beta interferon response controls tissue tropism and pathogenicity of poliovirus. J. Virol. 2005, 79(7):4460-4469.
89. Irie H., Koyama H., Kubo H., Fukuda A., Aita K., Koike T., Yoshimura A., Yoshida T., Shiga J., Hill T. Herpes simplex virus hepatitis in macrophage-depleted mice: The role of massive, apoptotic cell death in pathogenesis. J. Gen. Virol. 1998, 79(Pt 5):1225-1231.
90. Iwasaki A., Welker R., Mueller S., Linehan M., Nomoto A., Wimmer E. Immunofluorescence analysis of poliovirus receptor expression in Peyer's patches of humans, primates, and CD155 transgenic mice: Implications for poliovirus infection. J. Infect. Dis. 2002, 186(5):585-592.
91. Iwasaki Y., Clark H.F. Cell to cell transmission of virus in the central nervous system II. Experimental rabies in mouse. Lab. Invest. 1975, 33(4):391-399.
92. Johansson M.E., Phillipson M., Petersson J., Velcich A., Holm L., Hansson G.C. The inner of the two Muc2 mucin-dependent mucus layers in colon is devoid of bacteria. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2008, 105(39):15064-15069.
93. Kew O.M., Nottay B.K., Hatch M.H., Nakano J.H., Obijeski J.F. Multiple genetic changes can occur in the oral poliovaccines upon replication in humans. J. Gen. Virol. 1981, 56(Pt 2):337-347.
94. Kimata J.T., Kuller L., Anderson D.B., Dailey P., Overbaugh J. Emerging cytopathic and antigenic simian immunodeficiency virus variants influence AIDS progression. Nat. Med. 1999, 5(5):535-541.
95. Kobiler D., Lustig S., Gozes Y., Ben-Nathan D., Akov Y. Sodium dodecylsulphate induces a breach in the blood-brain barrier and enables a West Nile virus variant to penetrate into mouse brain. Brain Res. 1989, 496(1-2):314-316.
96. Koike S., Horie H., Ise I., Okitsu A., Yoshida M., Iizuka N., Takeuchi K., Takegami T., Nomoto A. The poliovirus receptor protein is produced both as membrane-bound and secreted forms. EMBO J. 1990, 9(10):3217-3224.
97. Koike S., Taya C., Kurata T., Abe S., Ise I., Yonekawa H., Nomoto A. Transgenic mice susceptible to poliovirus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1991, 88(3):951-955.
98. Kotenko S.V., Gallagher G., Baurin V.V., Lewis-Antes A., Shen M., Shah N.K., Langer J.A., Sheikh F., Dickensheets H., Donnelly R.P. IFN-lambdas mediate antiviral protection through a distinct class II cytokine receptor complex. Nat. Immunol. 2003, 4(1):69-77.
99. Kuss S., Etheredge C., Pfeiffer J. Multiple host barriers restrict poliovirus trafficking in mice. PLoS Pathog. 2008, 4(6):e1000082.
100. Lancaster K.Z., Pfeiffer J.K. Limited trafficking of a neurotropic virus through inefficient retrograde axonal transport and the type I interferon response. PLoS Pathog. 2010, 6(3):e1000791.
101. Laskus T., Wilkinson J., Gallegos-Orozco J.F., Radkowski M., Adair D.M., Nowicki M., Operskalski E., Buskell Z., Seeff L.B., Vargas H., Rakela J. Analysis of hepatitis C virus quasispecies transmission and evolution in patients infected through blood transfusion. Gastroenterology 2004, 127(3):764-776.
102. Loeb L.A., Essigmann J.M., Kazazi F., Zhang J., Rose K.D., Mullins J.I. Lethal mutagenesis of HIV with mutagenic nucleoside analogs. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1999, 96(4):1492-1497.
103. Macpherson A.J., McCoy K.D., Johansen F.E., Brandtzaeg P. The immune geography of IgA induction and function. Mucosal. Immunol. 2008, 1(1):11-22.
104. Macpherson A.J., Slack E. The functional interactions of commensal bacteria with intestinal secretory IgA. Curr. Opin. Gastroenterol. 2007, 23(6):673-678.
105. Mansky L.M. HIV mutagenesis and the evolution of antiretroviral drug resistance. Drug Resist. Updat. 2002, 5(6):219-223.
106. Mansky L.M., Temin H.M. Lower in vivo mutation rate of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 than that predicted from the fidelity of purified reverse transcriptase. J. Virol. 1995, 69(8):5087-5094.
107. Martinat C., Jarousse N., Prevost M.C., Brahic M. The GDVII strain of Theiler's virus spreads via axonal transport. J. Virol. 1999, 73(7):6093-6098.
108. McAuley J.L., Linden S.K., Png C.W., King R.M., Pennington H.L., Gendler S.J., Florin T.H., Hill G.R., Korolik V., McGuckin M.A. MUC1 cell surface mucin is a critical element of the mucosal barrier to infection. J. Clin. Invest. 2007, 117(8):2313-2324.
109. McCloskey B.P. The relation of prophylactic inoculations to the onset of poliomyletis. Lancet 1950, 1:659-663.
110. McMinn P.C. An overview of the evolution of enterovirus 71 and its clinical and public health significance. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 2002, 26(1):91-107.
111. McNearney T., Hornickova Z., Markham R., Birdwell A., Arens M., Saah A., Ratner L. Relationship of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 sequence heterogeneity to stage of disease. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1992, 89(21):10247-10251.
112. Melnick J. Enteroviruses: Polioviruses, coxsackieviruses, echoviruses, and newer enteroviruses. Virology 1996, Vol. 1:655-712. Raven Press, New York.
113. Melnick J., Proctor R., Ocampo A., Diwan A., Ben-Porath E. Viremia after administration of live poliovirus vaccine. Bacteriol. Proc. 1961, 61:145.
114. Mendelsohn C.L., Wimmer E., Racaniello V.R. Cellular receptor for poliovirus: Molecular cloning, nucleotide sequence, and expression of a new member of the immunoglobulin superfamily. Cell 1989, 56(5):855-865.
115. Minor T.E., Allen C.I., Tsiatis A.A., Nelson D.B., D'Alessio D.J. Human infective dose determinations for oral poliovirus type 1 vaccine in infants. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1981, 13(2):388-389.
116. Modlin J.F. Poliomyelitis and poliovirus immunization. Human Enterovirus Infections 1995, 195-220. American Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C. H.A. Rotbart (Ed.).
117. Mordstein M., Neugebauer E., Ditt V., Jessen B., Rieger T., Falcone V., Sorgeloos F., Ehl S., Mayer D., Kochs G., Schwemmle M., Gunther S., et al. Lambda interferon renders epithelial cells of the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts resistant to viral infections. J. Virol. 2010, 84(11):5670-5677.
118. Morrison L.A., Sidman R.L., Fields B.N. Direct spread of reovirus from the intestinal lumen to the central nervous system through vagal autonomic nerve fibers. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1991, 88(9):3852-3856.
119. Mrkic B., Pavlovic J., Rulicke T., Volpe P., Buchholz C.J., Hourcade D., Atkinson J.P., Aguzzi A., Cattaneo R. Measles virus spread and pathogenesis in genetically modified mice. J. Virol. 1998, 72(9):7420-7427.
120. Mueller S., Cao X., Welker R., Wimmer E. Interaction of the poliovirus receptor CD155 with the dynein light chain Tctex-1 and its implication for poliovirus pathogenesis. J. Biol. Chem. 2002, 277(10):7897-7904.
121. Mueller S., Wimmer E., Cello J. Poliovirus and poliomyelitis: A tale of guts, brains, and an accidental event. Virus Res. 2005, 111(2):175-193.
122. Muller H.J. The relation of recombination to mutational advance. Mutat. Res. 1964, 106:2-9.
123. Muller U., Steinhoff U., Reis L.F., Hemmi S., Pavlovic J., Zinkernagel R.M., Aguet M. Functional role of type I and type II interferons in antiviral defense. Science 1994, 264(5167):1918-1921.
124. Nathanson N. The pathogenesis of poliomyelitis: What we don't know. Adv. Virus Res. 2008, 71:1-50.
125. Nathanson N., Bodian D. Experimental poliomyelitis following intramuscular virus injection I. The effect of neural block on a neurotropic and a pantropic strain. Bull. Johns Hopkins Hosp. 1961, 108:308-319.
126. Nathanson N., Langmuir A.D. The cutter incident. Poliomyelitis following formaldehyde-inactivated poliovirus vaccination in the United States during the spring of 1955. I Background. Am. J. Hyg. 1963, 78:16-28.
127. Nathanson N., Langmuir A.D. The cutter incident. Poliomyelitis following formaldehyde- inactivated poliovirus vaccination in the United States during the spring of 1955. II Relationship of poliomyelitis to cutter vaccine. Am. J. Hyg. 1963, 78:29-60.
128. Nee S. Deleterious mutation and genetic recombination. Nature 1988, 331(6154):308.
129. Nieke J., Schachner M. Expression of the neural cell adhesion molecules L1 and N-CAM and their common carbohydrate epitope L2/HNK-1 during development and after transection of the mouse sciatic nerve. Differentiation 1985, 30(2):141-151.
130. Nkowane B.M., Wassilak S.G., Orenstein W.A., Bart K.J., Schonberger L.B., Hinman A.R., Kew O.M. Vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis. United States 1973 through 1984. JAMA 1987, 257(10):1335-1340.
131. Novella I.S., Duarte E.A., Elena S.F., Moya A., Domingo E., Holland J.J. Exponential increases of RNA virus fitness during large population transmissions. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1995, 92(13):5841-5844.
132. Oberste M.S., Maher K., Flemister M.R., Marchetti G., Kilpatrick D.R., Pallansch M.A. Comparison of classic and molecular approaches for the identification of untypeable enteroviruses. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2000, 38(3):1170-1174.
133. Offit P.A. The Cutter incident, 50 years later. N. Engl. J. Med. 2005, 352(14):1411-1412.
134. Ohka S., Igarashi H., Nagata N., Sakai M., Koike S., Nochi T., Kiyono H., Nomoto A. Establishment of a poliovirus oral infection system in human poliovirus receptor (hPVR/CD155)-expressing transgenic mice that are deficient in interferon-{alpha}/{beta} receptor. J. Virol. 2007, 81(15):7902-7912.
135. Ohka S., Matsuda N., Tohyama K., Oda T., Morikawa M., Kuge S., Nomoto A. Receptor (CD155)-dependent endocytosis of poliovirus and retrograde axonal transport of the endosome. J. Virol. 2004, 78(13):7186-7198.
136. Ohka S., Nomoto A. Recent insights into poliovirus pathogenesis. Trends Microbiol. 2001, 9(10):501-506.
137. Ohka S., Sakai M., Bohnert S., Igarashi H., Deinhardt K., Schiavo G., Nomoto A. Receptor-dependent and -independent axonal retrograde transport of poliovirus in motor neurons. J. Virol. 2009, 83(10):4995-5004.
138. Ohka S., Yang W.X., Terada E., Iwasaki K., Nomoto A. Retrograde transport of intact poliovirus through the axon via the fast transport system. Virology 1998, 250(1):67-75.
139. Ouzilou L., Caliot E., Pelletier I., Prevost M.C., Pringault E., Colbere-Garapin F. Poliovirus transcytosis through M-like cells. J. Gen. Virol. 2002, 83(Pt 9):2177-2182.
140. Pallansch M.A., Roos R.P. Enteroviruses: Polioviruses, coxsackieviruses, echoviruses, and newer enteroviruses. Fields Virology 2001, 723-776. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia. D.M. Knipe, P.M. Howley (Eds.).
141. Pfeiffer J.K., Kirkegaard K. A single mutation in poliovirus RNA-dependent RNA polymerase confers resistance to mutagenic nucleotide analogs via increased fidelity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2003, 100(12):7289-7294.
142. Pfeiffer J.K., Kirkegaard K. Increased fidelity reduces poliovirus fitness and virulence under selective pressure in mice. PLoS Pathog. 2005, 1(2):e11.
143. Pfeiffer J.K., Kirkegaard K. Bottleneck-mediated quasispecies restriction during spread of an RNA virus from inoculation site to brain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2006, 103(14):5520-5525.
144. Prehaud C., Megret F., Lafage M., Lafon M. Virus infection switches TLR-3-positive human neurons to become strong producers of beta interferon. J. Virol. 2005, 79(20):12893-12904.
145. Racaniello V.R. One hundred years of poliovirus pathogenesis. Virology 2006, 344(1):9-16.
146. Ren R., Racaniello V.R. Human poliovirus receptor gene expression and poliovirus tissue tropism in transgenic mice. J. Virol. 1992, 66(1):296-304.
147. Ren R., Racaniello V.R. Poliovirus spreads from muscle to the central nervous system by neural pathways. J. Infect. Dis. 1992, 166(4):747-752.
148. Ren R.B., Costantini F., Gorgacz E.J., Lee J.J., Racaniello V.R. Transgenic mice expressing a human poliovirus receptor: A new model for poliomyelitis. Cell 1990, 63(2):353-362.
149. Roberts L. Global health. Polio eradication: Is it time to give up?. Science 2006, 312(5775):832-835.
150. Roberts L. Infectious disease. Polio experts strive to understand a puzzling outbreak. Science 2006, 312(5780):1581.
151. Rubin D.H., Kornstein M.J., Anderson A.O. Reovirus serotype 1 intestinal infection: A novel replicative cycle with ileal disease. J. Virol. 1985, 53(2):391-398.
152. Ryman K.D., Klimstra W.B., Nguyen K.B., Biron C.A., Johnston R.E. Alpha/beta interferon protects adult mice from fatal Sindbis virus infection and is an important determinant of cell and tissue tropism. J. Virol. 2000, 74(7):3366-3378.
153. Sabin A.B. Behavior of chimpanzee avirulent poliomyelitis viruses in experimentally infected human volunteers. Am. J. Med. Sci. 1955, 230(1):1-8.
154. Sabin A.B. Pathogenesis of poliomyelitis; reappraisal in the light of new data. Science 1956, 123(3209):1151-1157.
155. Sabin A.B., Ward R. The natural history of human poliomyelitis: I Distribution of virus in nervous and non-nervous tissues. J. Exp. Med. 1941, 73(6):771-793.
156. Sabin A.B., Ward R. The natural history of human poliomyelitis: II Elimination of the virus. J. Exp. Med. 1941, 74(6):519-529.
157. Salinas S., Bilsland L.G., Henaff D., Weston A.E., Keriel A., Schiavo G., Kremer E.J. CAR-associated vesicular transport of an adenovirus in motor neuron axons. PLoS Pathog. 2009, 5(5):e1000442.
158. Salo R.J., Cliver D.O. Effect of acid pH, salts, and temperature on the infectivity and physical integrity of enteroviruses. Arch. Virol. 1976, 52(4):269-282.
159. Salzman N.H., Underwood M.A., Bevins C.L. Paneth cells, defensins, and the commensal microbiota: A hypothesis on intimate interplay at the intestinal mucosa. Semin. Immunol. 2007, 19(2):70-83.
160. Samuel M.A., Diamond M.S. Alpha/beta interferon protects against lethal West Nile virus infection by restricting cellular tropism and enhancing neuronal survival. J. Virol. 2005, 79(21):13350-13361.
161. Samuel M.A., Wang H., Siddharthan V., Morrey J.D., Diamond M.S. Axonal transport mediates West Nile virus entry into the central nervous system and induces acute flaccid paralysis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2007, 104(43):17140-17145.
162. Samuel M.A., Whitby K., Keller B.C., Marri A., Barchet W., Williams B.R., Silverman R.H., Gale M., Diamond M.S. PKR and RNase L contribute to protection against lethal West Nile virus infection by controlling early viral spread in the periphery and replication in neurons. J. Virol. 2006, 80(14):7009-7019.
163. Seganti L., Di Biase A.M., Marchetti M., Pietrantoni A., Tinari A., Superti F. Antiviral activity of lactoferrin towards naked viruses. Biometals 2004, 17(3):295-299.
164. 2 on virus infectivity. J. Exp. Med. 1969, 129(4):719-746.
165. Sheppard P., Kindsvogel W., Xu W., Henderson K., Schlutsmeyer S., Whitmore T.E., Kuestner R., Garrigues U., Birks C., Roraback J., Ostrander C., Dong D., et al. IL-28, IL-29 and their class II cytokine receptor IL-28R. Nat. Immunol. 2003, 4(1):63-68.
166. Shindarov L.M., Chumakov M.P., Voroshilova M.K., Bojinov S., Vasilenko S.M., Iordanov I., Kirov I.D., Kamenov E., Leshchinskaya E.V., Mitov G., Robinson I.A., Sivchev S., et al. Epidemiological, clinical, and pathomorphological characteristics of epidemic poliomyelitis-like disease caused by enterovirus 71. J. Hyg. Epidemiol. Microbiol. Immunol. 1979, 23(3):284-295.
167. Shresta S., Kyle J.L., Snider H.M., Basavapatna M., Beatty P.R., Harris E. Interferon-dependent immunity is essential for resistance to primary dengue virus infection in mice, whereas T- and B-cell-dependent immunity are less critical. J. Virol. 2004, 78(6):2701-2710.
168. Sicinski P., Rowinski J., Warchol J.B., Jarzabek Z., Gut W., Szczygiel B., Bielecki K., Koch G. Poliovirus type 1 enters the human host through intestinal M cells. Gastroenterology 1990, 98(1):56-58.
169. Sierra M., Airaksinen A., Gonzalez-Lopez C., Agudo R., Arias A., Domingo E. Foot-and-mouth disease virus mutant with decreased sensitivity to ribavirin: Implications for error catastrophe. J. Virol. 2007, 81(4):2012-2024.
170. Sierra S., Davila M., Lowenstein P.R., Domingo E. Response of foot-and-mouth disease virus to increased mutagenesis: Influence of viral load and fitness in loss of infectivity. J. Virol. 2000, 74(18):8316-8323.
171. Smith G.A., Gross S.P., Enquist L.W. Herpesviruses use bidirectional fast-axonal transport to spread in sensory neurons. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2001, 98(6):3466-3470.
172. Smith J.G., Nemerow G.R. Mechanism of adenovirus neutralization by Human alpha-defensins. Cell Host Microbe 2008, 3(1):11-19.
173. Soilu-Hanninen M., Eralinna J.P., Hukkanen V., Roytta M., Salmi A.A., Salonen R. Semliki Forest virus infects mouse brain endothelial cells and causes blood-brain barrier damage. J. Virol. 1994, 68(10):6291-6298.
174. Solecki D., Schwarz S., Wimmer E., Lipp M., Bernhardt G. The promoters for human and monkey poliovirus receptors. Requirements for basic and cell type-specific activity. J. Biol. Chem. 1997, 272(9):5579-5586.
175. Sommereyns C., Paul S., Staeheli P., Michiels T. IFN-lambda (IFN-lambda) is expressed in a tissue-dependent fashion and primarily acts on epithelial cells in vivo. PLoS Pathog. 2008, 4(3):e1000017.
176. Squitti R., De Stefano M.E., Edgar D., Toschi G. Effects of axotomy on the expression and ultrastructural localization of N-cadherin and neural cell adhesion molecule in the quail ciliary ganglion: An in vivo model of neuroplasticity. Neuroscience 1999, 91(2):707-722.
177. Strebel P.M., Ion-Nedelcu N., Baughman A.L., Sutter R.W., Cochi S.L. Intramuscular injections within 30 days of immunization with oral poliovirus vaccine-a risk factor for vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis. N. Engl. J. Med. 1995, 332(8):500-506.
178. Strikas R.A., Anderson L.J., Parker R.A. Temporal and geographic patterns of isolates of nonpolio enterovirus in the United States, 1970-1983. J. Infect. Dis. 1986, 153(2):346-351.
179. Sutter R.W., Patriarca P.A., Suleiman A.J., Brogan S., Malankar P.G., Cochi S.L., Al-Ghassani A.A., el-Bualy M.S. Attributable risk of DTP (diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and pertussis vaccine) injection in provoking paralytic poliomyelitis during a large outbreak in Oman. J. Infect. Dis. 1992, 165(3):444-449.
180. Takahashi Y., Misumi S., Muneoka A., Masuyama M., Tokado H., Fukuzaki K., Takamune N., Shoji S. Nonhuman primate intestinal villous M-like cells: An effective poliovirus entry site. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2008, 368(3):501-507.
181. Thompson A.A., Peersen O.B. Structural basis for proteolysis-dependent activation of the poliovirus RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. EMBO J. 2004, 23(17):3462-3471.
182. Timm J., Lauer G.M., Kavanagh D.G., Sheridan I., Kim A.Y., Lucas M., Pillay T., Ouchi K., Reyor L.L., Zur Wiesch J.S., Gandhi R.T., Chung R.T., et al. CD8 epitope escape and reversion in acute HCV infection. J. Exp. Med. 2004, 200(12):1593-1604.
183. Toborek M., Lee Y.W., Flora G., Pu H., Andras I.E., Wylegala E., Hennig B., Nath A. Mechanisms of the blood-brain barrier disruption in HIV-1 infection. Cell Mol. Neurobiol. 2005, 25(1):181-199.
184. Tomasi T.B., Tan E.M., Solomon A., Prendergast R.A. Characteristics of an immune system common to certain external secretions. J. Exp. Med. 1965, 121:101-124.
185. Trueta J. Physiological mechanisms involved in the localization of paralysis. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1955, 61(4):883-894.
186. Tyler K.L., Nathanson N. Pathogenesis of viral infections. Fields Virology 2001, 199-244. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia. D.M. Knipe, P.M. Howley (Eds.).
187. Valtanen S., Roivainen M., Piirainen L., Stenvik M., Hovi T. Poliovirus-specific intestinal antibody responses coincide with decline of poliovirus excretion. J. Infect. Dis. 2000, 182(1):1-5.
188. van Doorn L.J., Capriles I., Maertens G., DeLeys R., Murray K., Kos T., Schellekens H., Quint W. Sequence evolution of the hypervariable region in the putative envelope region E2/NS1 of hepatitis C virus is correlated with specific humoral immune responses. J. Virol. 1995, 69(2):773-778.
189. Verlinde J.D., Kret A., Wyler R. The distribution of poliomyelitis virus in cynomolgus monkeys following oral administration, tonsillectomy, and intramuscular injection of diphtheria toxoid. Arch. Gesamte Virusforsch. 1955, 6(2-3):175-182.
190. Vignuzzi M., Stone J.K., Arnold J.J., Cameron C.E., Andino R. Quasispecies diversity determines pathogenesis through cooperative interactions in a viral population. Nature 2006, 439(7074):344-348.
191. Vignuzzi M., Wendt E., Andino R. Engineering attenuated virus vaccines by controlling replication fidelity. Nat. Med. 2008, 14(2):154-161.
192. Wahid R., Cannon M.J., Chow M. Dendritic cells and macrophages are productively infected by poliovirus. J. Virol. 2005, 79(1):401-409.
193. Wang P., Dai J., Bai F., Kong K.F., Wong S.J., Montgomery R.R., Madri J.A., Fikrig E. Matrix metalloproteinase 9 facilitates West Nile virus entry into the brain. J. Virol. 2008, 82(18):8978-8985.
194. Wang T., Town T., Alexopoulou L., Anderson J.F., Fikrig E., Flavell R.A. Toll-like receptor 3 mediates West Nile virus entry into the brain causing lethal encephalitis. Nat. Med. 2004, 10(12):1366-1373.
195. Wang W., Owen S.M., Rudolph D.L., Cole A.M., Hong T., Waring A.J., Lal R.B., Lehrer R.I. Activity of alpha- and theta-defensins against primary isolates of HIV-1. J. Immunol. 2004, 173(1):515-520.
196. Weatherford T., Chavez D., Brasky K.M., Lemon S.M., Martin A., Lanford R.E. Lack of adaptation of chimeric GB virus B/hepatitis C virus in the marmoset model: Possible effects of bottleneck. J. Virol. 2009, 83(16):8062-8075.
197. Weiner A., Erickson A.L., Kansopon J., Crawford K., Muchmore E., Hughes A.L., Houghton M., Walker C.M. Persistent hepatitis C virus infection in a chimpanzee is associated with emergence of a cytotoxic T lymphocyte escape variant. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1995, 92(7):2755-2759.
198. Weng T.Y., Chen L.C., Shyu H.W., Chen S.H., Wang J.R., Yu C.K., Lei H.Y., Yeh T.M. Lactoferrin inhibits enterovirus 71 infection by binding to VP1 protein and host cells. Antiviral Res. 2005, 67(1):31-37.
199. Wenner H.A., Kamitsuka P. Primary sites of virus multiplication following intramuscular inoculation of poliomyelitis virus in cynomolgus monkeys. Virology 1957, 3(3):429-443.
200. Wessely R., Klingel K., Knowlton K.U., Kandolf R. Cardioselective infection with coxsackievirus B3 requires intact type I interferon signaling: Implications for mortality and early viral replication. Circulation 2001, 103(5):756-761.
201. Willems F.T., Melnick J.L., Rawls W.E. Replication of poliovirus in phytohemagglutinin-stimulated human lymphocytes. J. Virol. 1969, 3(5):451-457.
202. Wolf J.L., Kauffman R.S., Finberg R., Dambrauskas R., Fields B.N., Trier J.S. Determinants of reovirus interaction with the intestinal M cells and absorptive cells of murine intestine. Gastroenterology 1983, 85(2):291-300.
203. Wolf J.L., Rubin D.H., Finberg R., Kauffman R.S., Sharpe A.H., Trier J.S., Fields B.N. Intestinal M cells: A pathway for entry of reovirus into the host. Science 1981, 212(4493):471-472.
204. Yanagiya A., Ohka S., Hashida N., Okamura M., Taya C., Kamoshita N., Iwasaki K., Sasaki Y., Yonekawa H., Nomoto A. Tissue-specific replicating capacity of a chimeric poliovirus that carries the internal ribosome entry site of hepatitis C virus in a new mouse model transgenic for the human poliovirus receptor. J. Virol. 2003, 77(19):10479-10487.
205. Yang W.X., Terasaki T., Shiroki K., Ohka S., Aoki J., Tanabe S., Nomura T., Terada E., Sugiyama Y., Nomoto A. Efficient delivery of circulating poliovirus to the central nervous system independently of poliovirus receptor. Virology 1997, 229(2):421-428.
206. Yoshikawa T., Iwasaki T., Ida-Hosonuma M., Yoneyama M., Fujita T., Horie H., Miyazawa M., Abe S., Simizu B., Koike S. Role of the alpha/beta interferon response in the acquisition of susceptibility to poliovirus by kidney cells in culture. J. Virol. 2006, 80(9):4313-4325.
207. Yuste E., Sanchez-Palomino S., Casado C., Domingo E., Lopez-Galindez C. Drastic fitness loss in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 upon serial bottleneck events. J. Virol. 1999, 73(4):2745-2751.
208. Zhang S., Racaniello V.R. Expression of the poliovirus receptor in intestinal epithelial cells is not sufficient to permit poliovirus replication in the mouse gut. J. Virol. 1997, 71(7):4915-4920.
209. Zurbriggen A., Fujinami R.S. Theiler's virus infection in nude mice: Viral RNA in vascular endothelial cells. J. Virol. 1988, 62(10):3589-3596.