Vitamin D deficiency, left ventricular dysfunction and heart failure;Carenza di vitamina D, disfunzione ventricolare sinistra e scompenso cardiaco

Giornale Italiano di Cardiologia

Volumn 11, Issue 9, 2010, Pages 645-653

  Cioffi, Giovanni ^a   Gatti, Davide ^b   Adami, Silvano ^b  

^a Casa di Cura Villa Bianca   (Italy)

^b UO Riabilitazione Osteoarticolare   (Italy)

Author keywords

Heart failure; Left ventricular function; Vitamin D

Indexed keywords

VITAMIN D;

GEOMETRY; HEART FAILURE; HEART FUNCTION; HEART LEFT VENTRICLE FUNCTION; HEART MUSCLE METABOLISM; REGULATORY MECHANISM; REVIEW; VITAMIN D DEFICIENCY;

HEART FAILURE; HUMANS; MUSCLE CELLS; VENTRICULAR DYSFUNCTION, LEFT; VITAMIN D; VITAMIN D DEFICIENCY; VITAMINS;

EID: 77957081756     PISSN: 18276806     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (115)

1. Lee JH, O'Keefe JH, Bell D, Hensrud DD, Holick MF. Vitamin D deficiency. An important, common, and easily treatable cardiovascular risk factor? J Am Coll Cardiol 2008; 52: 1949-56. La vitamina D non agisce solo sul sistema scheletrico ma ha importanti azioni sulle cellule muscolari stimolando la produzione di proteine contrattili ed attivando alcune funzioni intracellulari concernenti il metabolismo del calcio e la produzione di energia cellulare. Per queste ragioni il deficit di vitamina D è da considerare una condizione di rischio cardiovascolare correggibile.
2. Holick MF. Vitamin D deficiency. N Engl J Med 2007; 357: 266-81.
3. Holick MF. Vitamin D: the underappreciated D-lightful hormone that is important for skeletal and cellular death. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes 2002; 9: 87-98.
4. Holick MF. Vitamin D: photobiology, metabolism, mechanism of action, and clinical applications. In: Favus MJ, ed. Primer on the metabolic bone diseases and disorders of mineral metabolism. 4th edition. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 1999: 92-8.
5. DeLuca HF. The cardinal role of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in mineral homeostasis. In: Frame B, Potts JT Jr, eds. Clinical disorders of bone and mineral metabolism. Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica, 1983: 78-92.
6. Ritz E, Boland R, Kreusser W. Effects of vitamin D and parathyroid hormone on muscle: potential role in uremic myopathy. Am J Clin Nutr 1980; 33: 1522-9.
7. Floyd M, Ayyat DR, Barwick DD, Hudgson P, Weightman D. Myopathy in chronic renal failure. Q J Med 1974; 43: 509-24.
8. Schott GD, Wills MR. Muscle weakness in osteomalacia. Lancet 1976; 1: 626-9.
9. Coburn JW. Renal osteodystrophy. Kidney Int 1980; 17: 677-93.
10. Stroder J. The content of actomyosin in the skeletal muscle of rats with experimentally induced rickets. Helv Paediatr Acta 1966; 21: 323-6.
11. Birge SJ, Haddad JG. 25-Hydroxycholecalciferol stimulation of muscle metabolism. J Clin Invest 1975; 56: 1100-7.
12. Sottili M, Cosmi L, Borgogni E, et al. Immunomodulatory effects of BXL-01-0029, a less hypercalcemic vitamin D analogue, in human cardiomyocytes and T cells. Exp Cell Res 2009; 315: 264-73.
13. Wood JC, Claster S, Carson S, et al. Vitamin D deficiency, cardiac iron and cardiac function in thalassaemia major. Br J Haematol 2008; 141: 891-4.
14. Xiang G, Seki T, Schuster MD, et al. Catalytic degradation of vitamin D up-regulated protein 1 mRNA enhances cardiomyocyte survival and prevents left ventricular remodeling after myocardial ischemia. J Biol Chem 2005; 280: 39394-402.
15. Weishaar RE, Kim SN, Saunders DE, Simpson RU. Involvement of vitamin D3 with cardiovascular function. III. Effects on physical and morphological properties. Am J Physiol 1990; 258 (1 Pt 1): E134-E142.
16. Simpson RU, Hershey SH, Nibbelink KA. Characterization of heart size and blood pressure in the vitamin D receptor knockout mouse. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2007; 103: 521-4.
17. Xiang W, Kong J, Chen S, et al. Cardiac hypertrophy in vitamin D receptor knockout mice: role of the systemic and cardiac renin-angiotensin systems. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2005; 288: E125-E132.
18. Nibbelink KA, Tishkoff DX, Hershey SD, Rahman A, Simpson RU. 1,25(OH)2-vitamin D3 actions on cell proliferation, size, gene expression, and receptor localization, in the HL-1 cardiac myocyte. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2007; 103: 533-7.
19. Li YC, Kong J, Wei M, Chen ZF, Liu SQ, Cao LP. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D(3) is a negative endocrine regulator of the renin-angiotensin system. J Clin Invest 2002; 110: 229-38.
20. Wu J, Garami M, Cao L, Li Q, Gardner DG. 1,25(OH)2D3 suppresses expression and secretion of atrial natriuretic peptide from cardiac myocytes. Am J Physiol 1995; 268 (6 Pt 1): E1108-E1113.
21. Rahman A, Hershey S, Ahmed S, Nibbelink K, Simpson RU. Heart extracellular matrix gene expression profile in the vitamin D receptor knockout mice. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2007; 103: 416-9.
22. Fabiato A, Fabiato F. Calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Circ Res 1977; 40: 119-29.
23. Katz AM. Role of the contractile proteins and sarcoplasmic reticulum in the response of the heart to catecholamines: an historical review. Adv Cyclic Nucleotide Res 1979; 11: 303-43.
24. Ebashi S, Endo M. Calcium ion and muscle contraction. Prog Biophys Mol Biol 1968; 18: 123-83.
25. Tishkoff DX, Nibbelink KA, Holmberg KH, Dandu L, Simpson RU. Functional vitamin D receptor (VDR) in the t-tubules of cardiac myocytes: VDR knockout cardiomyocyte contractility. Endocrinology 2008; 149: 558-64.
26. Brette F, Orchard C. T-tubule function in mammalian cardiac myocytes. Circ Res 2003; 92: 1182-92.
27. Green JJ, Robinson DA, Wilson GE, Simpson RU, Westfall MV. Calcitriol modulation of cardiac contractile performance via protein kinase C. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2006; 41: 350-9. La vitamina D esercita un'azione diretta sulla funzione miocardica sistolica e diastolica controllando sia lo sviluppo della pressione miocardica attraverso una riduzione della frequenza di contrazione che garantisce un migliore accorciamento delle miofibrille, sia riducendo la frequenza di rilasciamento attraverso l'inibizione dei processi di sequestro di calcio nel reticolo sarcoplasmatico e/o la regolazione dell'espressione della proteina legante il calcio vitamina D-dipendente.
28. Weishaar RE, Simpson RU. Vitamin D3 and cardiovascular function in rats. J Clin Invest 1987; 79: 1706-12.
29. Norman AW, Nemere I, Zhou LX, et al. 1,25(OH)2-vitamin D3, a steroid hormone that produces biologic effects via both genomic and nongenomic pathways. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 1992; 41: 231-40.
30. Looker AC, Dawson-Huges B, Calvo MS, Gunter EW, Sahyoun NR. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D status of adolescents and adults in two seasonal subpopulations from NHANES III. Bone 2002; 30: 771-7.
31. Holick MF. High prevalence of vitamin D inadequacy and implications for health. Mayo Clin Proc 2006; 81: 353-73.
32. Malabanan A, Veronikis IE, Holick MF. Redefining vitamin D insufficiency. Lancet 1998; 351: 805-6.
33. Lips P, Hosking D, Lippuner K, et al. The prevalence of vitamin D inadequacy amongst women with osteoporosis: an international epidemiological investigation. J Intern Med 2006; 260: 245-54.
34. Lips P, Duong T, Oleksik A, et al. A global study of vitamin D status and parathyroid function in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis: baseline data from the Multiple Outcomes of Raloxifene Evaluation clinical trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001; 86: 1212-21.
35. van der Wielen RP, Lowik MR, van den Berg H, et al. Serum vitamin D concentrations among elderly people in Europe. Lancet 1995; 346: 207-10.
36. Rossini M, Perbellini S, Lazzarin M, Adami S, Bertoldo F, Lo Cascio V. Incidenza di ipovitaminosi D nel Nord Italia. Ital J Miner Electrolyte Metab 1990; 4: 13-7.
37. Carnevale V, Modoni S, Pileri M, et al. Longitudinal evaluation of vitamin D status in healthy subjects from southern Italy: seasonal and gender differences. Osteoporos Int 2001; 12: 1026-30.
38. Bettica P, Bevilacqua M, Vago T, Norbiato G. High prevalence of hypovitaminosis D among free-living postmenopausal women referred to an osteoporosis outpatient clinic in northern Italy for initial screening. Osteoporos Int 1999; 9: 226-9.
39. Romagnoli E, Caravella P, Scarnecchia L, Martinez P, Minisola S. Hypovitaminosis D in an Italian population of healthy subjects and hospitalized patients. Br J Nutr 1999; 81: 133-7.
40. Isaia G, Giorgino R, Rini GB, Bevilacqua M, Maugeri D, Adami S. Prevalence of hypovitaminosis D in elderly women in Italy: clinical consequences and risk factors. Osteoporos Int 2003; 14: 577-82. Trattasi di una delle più importanti esperienze scientifiche italiane su questo argomento che ha documentato l'elevata prevalenza di ipovitaminosi D nel nostra paese nell'anziano.
41. Semba RD, Garrett E, Johnson BA, Guralnik JM, Fried LP. Vitamin D deficiency among older women with and without disability. Am J Clin Nutr 2000; 72: 1529-34.
42. Jacques PF, Felson DT, Tucker KL, et al. Plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D and its determinants in an elderly population sample. Am J Clin Nutr 1997; 66: 929-36.
43. Martins D, Wolf M, Pan D, et al. Prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors and the serum levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D in the United States: data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Arch Intern Med 2007; 167: 1159-65.
44. Need AG, Morris HA, Horowitz M, Nordin C. Effects of skin thickness, age, body fat, and sunlight on serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D. Am J Clin Nutr 1993; 58: 882-5.
45. Dawson-Hughes B, Harris SS, Dallal GE. Plasma calcidiol, season, and serum parathyroid hormone concentrations in healthy elderly men and women. Am J Clin Nutr 1997; 65: 67-71.
46. Bell NH, Epstein S, Greene A, Shary J, Oexmann MJ, Shaw S. Evidence for alteration of the vitamin D-endocrine system in obese subjects. J Clin Invest 1985; 76: 370-3.
47. Scragg R, Sowers M, Bell C. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D, ethnicity, and blood pressure in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Am J Hypertens 2007; 20: 713-9.
48. Scragg R, Sowers M, Bell C. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D, diabetes, and ethnicity in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Diabetes Care 2004; 27: 2813-8.
49. Riachy R, Vandewalle B, Moerman E, et al. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 protects human pancreatic islets against cytokine-induced apoptosis via down-regulation of the Fas receptor. Apoptosis 2006; 11: 151-9.
50. Riachy R, Vandewalle B, Kerr Conte J, et al. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 protects RINm5F and human islet cells against cytokine-induced apoptosis: implication of the antiapoptotic protein A20. Endocrinology 2002; 143: 4809-19.
51. Chiu KC, Chu A, Go VL, Saad MF. Hypovitaminosis D is associated with insulin resistance and beta cell dysfunction. Am J Clin Nutr 2004; 79: 820-5.
52. Pittas AG, Dawson-Hughes B, Li T, et al. Vitamin D and calcium intake in relation to type 2 diabetes in women. Diabetes Care 2006; 29: 650-6.
53. Pittas AG, Lau J, Hu FB, Dawson-Hughes B. The role of vitamin D and calcium in type 2 diabetes. A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007; 92: 2017-29.
54. Pilz S, Tomaschitz A, Ritz E, Pieber TR; Medscape. Vitamin D status and arterial hypertension: a systematic review. Nat Rev Cardiol 2009; 6: 621-30.
55. de Boer IH, Kestenbaum B, Shoben AB, Michos ED, Sarnak MJ, Siscovick DS. 25-Hydroxyvitamin D levels inversely associate with risk for developing coronary artery calcification. J Am Soc Nephrol 2009; 20: 1805-12.
56. Levy D, Larson MG, Vasan RS, Kannel WB, Ho KK. The progression from hypertension to congestive heart failure. JAMA 1996; 275: 1557-62.
57. Wilhelmsen L, Rosengren A, Eriksson H, Lappas G. Heart failure in the general population of men - morbidity, risk factors and prognosis. J Intern Med 2001; 249: 253-61.
58. Baker DW. Prevention of heart failure. J Card Fail 2002; 8: 333-46.
59. Vasan RS, Beiser A, Seshadri S, et al. Residual lifetime risk for developing hypertension in middle-aged women and men: the Framingham Heart Study. JAMA 2002; 287: 1003-10.
60. Vakili BA, Okin PM, Devereux RB. Prognostic implications of left ventricular hypertrophy. Am Heart J 2001; 141: 334-41.
61. Hunt SA, Abraham WT, Chin MH, et al. 2009 Focused update incorporated into the ACC/AHA 2005 guidelines for the diagnosis and management of heart failure in adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines developed in collaboration with the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation. J Am Coll Cardiol 2009; 53: e1-e90.
62. Taegtmeyer H, McNulty P, Young ME. Adaptation and maladaptation of the heart in diabetes: Part I: general concepts. Circulation 2002; 105: 1727-33.
63. Kenchaiah S, Evans JC, Levy D, et al. Obesity and the risk of heart failure. N Engl J Med 2002; 347: 305-13.
64. He J, Ogden LG, Bazzano LA, Vupputuri S, Loria C, Whelton PK. Risk factors for congestive heart failure in US men and women: NHANES I epidemiologic follow-up study. Arch Intern Med 2001; 161: 996-1002.
65. Krumholz HM, Chen YT, Wang Y, Vaccarino V, Radford MJ, Horwitz RI. Predictors of readmission among elderly survivors of admission with heart failure. Am Heart J 2000; 139 (1 Pt 1): 72-7.
66. Moon J, Bandy B, Davison AJ. Hypothesis: Etiology of atherosclerosis and osteoporosis: are imbalances in the calciferol endocrine system implicated? J Am Coll Nutr 1992; 11: 567-83.
67. Zittermann A, Dembinski J, Stehle P. Low vitamin D status is associated with low cord blood level of the immunosuppressive cytokine interleukin-10. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2004; 15: 242-6.
68. Mahon BD, Gordon SA, Cruz J, Cosman F, Cantorna MT. Cytokine profile in patients with multiple sclerosis following vitamin D supplementation. J Neuroimmunol 2003; 134: 128-32.
69. Margolis JR, Chen JT, Kong Y, Peter RH, Behar VS, Kisslo JA. The diagnostic and prognostic significance of coronary artery calcification: a report of 800 cases. Radiology 1980; 137: 609-16.
70. Watson KE, Abrolat ML, Malone LL, et al. Active serum vitamin D levels are inversely correlated with coronary calcification. Circulation 1997; 96: 1755-60.
71. Ly YC. Vitamin D regulation of the renin-angiotensin system. J Cell Biochem 2003; 88: 327-31.
72. Krause R, Buhring M, Hopfenmuller W, Holick MF, Sharma AM. Ultraviolet B and blood pressure. Lancet 1998; 352: 709-10.
73. Sudgen JA, Davies JI, Witham MD, Morris AD, Struther AD. Vitamin D improves endothelial function in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and low vitamin D levels. Diabet Med 2008; 25: 320-5.
74. Cannell JJ, Vieth R, Umharu JC, et al. Epidemic influenza and vitamin D. Epidemiol Infect 2006; 134: 1129-40.
75. Reichert TA, Simonsen L, Sharma A, Pardo SA, Fedson DS, Miller MA. Influenza and the winter increase in mortality in the United States, 1959-1999. Am J Epidemiol 2004; 160: 492-502.
76. Angelo SJ, Marshall PS, Chrissoheris MP, Chaves AM. Clinical characteristics associated with poor outcome in patients acutely infected with Influenza A. Conn Med 2004; 68: 199-205.
77. Wang TJ, Pencina MJ, Booth SL, et al. Vitamin D deficiency and risk of cardiovascular disease. Circulation 2008; 117: 503-11. Uno degli studi più prestigiosi e recenti sull'argomento che ha definitivamente posto all'attenzione del mondo cardiologico internazionale la relazione tra ipovitaminosi D ed aumentato rischio cardiovascolare.
78. Pilz S, Marz W, Wellnitz B, et al. Association of vitamin D deficiency with heart failure and sudden cardiac death in a large cross-sectional study of patients referred for coronary angiography. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008; 93: 3927-35.
79. Zittermann A. Vitamin D and disease prevention with special reference to cardiovascular disease. Prog Biophys Mol Biol 2006; 92: 39-48.
80. Giovannucci E, Liu Y, Hollis BW, Rimm EB. 25-Hydroxyvitamin D and risk of myocardial infarction in men: a prospective study. Arch Intern Med 2008; 168: 1174-80.
81. Dobnig H, Pilz S, Scharnagl H, et al. Independent association of low serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D levels with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality. Arch Intern Med 2008; 168: 1340-9.
82. Zittermann A, Fischer J, Schleithoff SS, Tenderich G, Fuchs U, Koerfer R. Patients with congestive heart failure and healthy controls differ in vitamin D-associated lifestyle factors. Int J Vitam Nutr Res 2007; 77: 280-8.
83. Zittermann A, Schleithoff SS, Koerfer R. Vitamin D insufficiency in congestive heart failure: why and what to do about it? Heart Fail Rev 2006; 11: 25-33.
84. Saadi HF, Kazzam E, Ghurbana BA, Nicholls MG. Hypothesis: Correction of low vitamin D status among Arab women will prevent heart failure and improve cardiac function in established heart failure. Eur J Heart Fail 2006; 8: 694-6.
85. Zittermann A, Schleithoff SS, Götting C, et al. Poor outcome in end-stage heart failure patients with low circulating calcitriol levels. Eur J Heart Fail 2008; 10: 321-7.
86. Kim DH, Sabour S, Sagar UN, Adams S, Whellan DJ. Prevalence of hypovitaminosis D in cardiovascular diseases (from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2001 to 2004). Am J Cardiol 2008; 102: 1540-4.
87. Shane E, Mancini D, Aaronson K, et al. Bone mass, vitamin D deficiency, and hyperparathyroidism in congestive heart failure. Am J Med 1997; 103: 197-207.
88. Schleithoff SS, Zittermann A, Tenderich G, Berthold HK, Stehle P, Koerfer R. Vitamin D supplementation improves cytokine profile in patients with congestive heart failure: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr 2006; 83: 754-9.
89. Nishio K, Mukae S, Aoki S, et al. Congestive heart failure is associated with the rate of bone loss. J Intern Med 2003; 253: 439-46.
90. Alsafwah S, Laguardia SP, Nelson MD, et al. Hypovitaminosis D in African Americans residing in Memphis, Tennessee with and without heart failure. Am J Med Sci 2008; 335: 292-7.
91. Silverberg D, Wexler D, Blum M, Schwartz D, Iaina A. The association between congestive heart failure and chronic renal disease. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 2004; 13: 163-70.
92. Haug C, Aukrust P, Haug E, Morkrid L, Muller F, Froland SS. Severe deficiency of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in human immunodeficiency virus infection: association with immunological hyperactivity and only minor changes in calcium homeostasis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998; 83: 3832-8.
93. Mann DL, Young JB. Basic mechanisms in congestive heart failure. Recognizing the role of proinflammatory cytokines. Chest 1994; 105: 897-904.
94. Rostand SG, Drueke TB. Parathyroid hormone, vitamin D, and cardiovascular disease in chronic renal failure. Kidney Int 1999; 56: 383-92.
95. Sambrook PN, Chen JS, March LM, et al. Serum parathyroid hormone is associated with increased mortality independent of 25-hydroxyvitamin D status, bone mass, and renal function in the frail and very old: a cohort study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004; 89: 5477-81.
96. Kazmi AS, Wall BM. Reversible congestive heart failure related to profound hypocalcemia secondary to hypoparathyroidism. Am J Med Sci 2007; 333: 226-9.
97. Carlton-Conway D, Tulloh R, Wood L, Kanabar D. Vitamin D deficiency and cardiac failure in infancy. J R Soc Med 2004; 97: 238-9.
98. Uysal S, Kalayci AG, Baysal K. Cardiac functions in children with vitamin D deficiency rickets. Pediatr Cardiol 1999; 20: 283-6.
99. Abdullah M, Bigras JL, McCrindle B. Dilated cardiomyopathy as the first sign of nutritional vitamin D deficiency rickets in infancy. Can J Cardiol 1999; 15: 699-701.
100. Holick MF. Vitamin D: importance in the prevention of cancers, type 1 diabetes, heart disease, and osteoporosis. Am J Clin Nutr 2004; 79: 362-71.
101. Binderman I, Harel S, Earon Y, et al. Acute stimulation of creatine kinase activity by vitamin D metabolites in the developing cerebellum. Biochim Biophys Acta 1988; 972: 9-16.
102. Bischoff HA, Stahelin HB, Urscheler N, et al. Muscle strength in the elderly: its relation to vitamin D metabolites. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1999; 80: 54-8.
103. Bischoff HA, Stahelin HB, Dick W, et al. Effects of vitamin D and calcium supplementation on falls: a randomized controlled trial. J Bone Miner Res 2003; 18: 343-51.
104. Boland R. Role of vitamin D in skeletal muscle function. Endoer Rev 1986; 7: 434-48.
105. Rimaniol JM, Authier FJ, Chariot P. Muscle weakness in intensive care patients: initial manifestation of vitamin D deficiency. Intensive Care Med 1994; 20: 591-2.
106. Venning G. Recent developments in vitamin D deficiency and muscle weakness among elderly people. BMJ 2005; 330: 524-6.
107. Yoshikawa S, Nakamura T, Tanabe H, Imamura T. Osteomalacic myopathy. Endocrinol Jpn 1979; 26 (Suppl): 65-72.
108. Zamboni M, Zoico E, Tosoni P, et al. Relation between vitamin D, physical performance, and disability in elderly persons. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2002; 57: M7-M11.
109. Bouillon R. Vitamin D: from photosynthesis, metabolism, and action to clinical applications. In: DeGroot LJ, Jameson JL, eds. Endocrinology. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders, 2001: 1009-28.
110. Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Giovannucci E, Willett WC, Dietrich T, Dawson-Hughes B. Estimation of optimal serum concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D for multiple health outcomes. Am J Clin Nutr 2006; 84: 18-28.
111. Rossini M, Viapiana O, Gatti D, James G, Girardello S, Adami S. The long term correction of vitamin D deficiency: comparison between different treatments with vitamin D in clinical practice. Minerva Med 2005; 96 (2 Suppl 2): 1-7.
112. Armas LA, Hollis BW, Heaney RP. Vitamin D2 is much less effective than vitamin D3 in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004; 89: 5387-91.
113. Romagnoli E, Mascia ML, Cipriani C, et al. Short and long-term variations in serum calciotropic hormones after a single very large dose of ergocalciferol (vitamin D2) or cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) in the elderly. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008; 93: 3015-20.
114. Whyte MP, Haddad JG Jr, Walters DD, Stamp TC. Vitamin D bioavailability: serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels in man after oral, subcutaneous, intramuscular, and intravenous vitamin D administration. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1979; 48: 906-11.
115. Holick MF. Vitamin D for health and in chronic kidney disease. Semin Dial 2005; 18: 266-75.