Role of Complement in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Pathogenesis

Systemic Lupus Erythematosus: A Companion to Rheumatology

Volumn , Issue , 2007, Pages 194-213

  Liu, Chau Ching ^a,b   Navratil, Jeannine S ^a,b   Kao, Amy H ^a,b   Manzi, Susan ^a,b   Ahearn, Joseph M ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 77955522777     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-323-04434-9.50025-7     Document Type: Chapter

References (211)

1. Vaughan JH, Bayles TB, Favour CB The response of serum gamma globulin level and complement titer to adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) therapy in lupus erythematosus disseminatus. J Lab Clin Med 1951, 37:698-702.
2. Elliott JA, Mathieson DR Complement in disseminated (systemic) lupus erythematosus. AMA Arch Dermat Syphilol 1953, 68:119-128.
3. Lange K, Wasserman E, Slobodny LH The significance of serum complement levels for the diagnosis and prognosis of acute and subacute glomerulonephritis and lupus erythematosus disseminatus. Ann Intern Med 1960, 53:636-646.
4. Schur PH, Sandson J. Immunological factors and clinical activity in systemic lupus erythematosus. N Engl J Med 1968, 278:533-538.
5. Hauptmann G, Grosshans E, Heid E. Systemic lupus erythematosus and hereditary complement deficiency: A case with total C4 defect. Ann Dermatol Syphil Paris 1974, 101:479-496.
6. Hannema AJ, et al. SLE like syndrome and functional deficiency of C1q in members of a large family. Clin Exp Immunol 1984, 55:106-114.
7. Pickering MC, et al. Systemic lupus erythematosus, complement deficiency, and apoptosis. Adv Immunol 2000, 76:227-324.
8. Muller-Eberhard HJ Molecular organization and function of the complement system. Annu Rev Biochem 1988, 57:321-347.
9. Walport MJ Complement: First of two parts. N Engl J Med 2001, 344:1058-1066.
10. Walport MJ Complement: Second of two parts. N Engl J Med 2001, 344:1140-1144.
11. Prodinger WM, et al. Complement. Fundamental Immunology 2003, 1077-1103. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia. W.E. Paul (Ed.).
12. Jiang HX, Siegel JN, Gewurz H. Binding and complement activation by C-reactive protein via the collagen-like region of C1q and inhibition of these reactions by monoclonal antibodies to C-reactive protein and C1q. J Immunol 1991, 146:2324-2330.
13. Ying SC, et al. Human serum amyloid P component oligomers bind and activate the classical complement pathway via residues 14-26 and 76-92 of the A chain collagen-like region of C1q. J Immunol 1993, 150:169-176.
14. Rogers J, et al. Complement activation by beta-amyloid in Alzheimer disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1992, 89:10016-10020.
15. Velazquez P, et al. Aspartate residue 7 in amyloid beta-protein is critical for classical complement pathway activation: Implications for Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis. Nature Med 1997, 3:77-79.
16. Jiang H, et al. DNA binds and activates complement via residues 14-26 of the human C1qA chain. J Biol Chem 1992, 267:25597-25601.
17. Turner MW Mannose binding lectin: The pluripotent molecule of the innate immune system. Immunol Today 1996, 17:532-540.
18. Wallis R. Structural and functional aspects of complement activation by mannose-binding protein. Immunobiology 2002, 205:433-445.
19. Thiel S, et al. A second serine protease associated with mannan-binding lectin that activates complement. Nature 1997, 386:506-510.
20. Dahl MR, et al. A new mannan-binding lectin associated serine protease, MASP-3, and its association with distinct complexes of the MBL complement activation pathway. Immunity 2001, 15:1-10.
21. Gal P, Ambrus G. Structure and function of complement activating enzyme complexes: C1 and MBL-MASPs. Current Protein & Peptide Science 2001, 2:43-59.
22. Pangburn MK, Muller-Eberhard HJ Relation of putative thioester bond in C3 to activation of the alternative pathway and the binding of C3b to biological targets of complement. J Exp Med 1980, 152:1102-1114.
23. Cornacoff JB, et al. Primate erythrocyte-immune complex-clearing mechanism. J Clin Invest 1983, 71:236-247.
24. Schifferli JA The role of complement and its receptor in the elimination of immune complexes. N Engl J Med 1986, 315:488-495.
25. Fearon DT, Locksley RM The instructive role of innate immunity in the acquired immune response. Science 1996, 272:50-53.
26. Carroll MC The role of complement and complement receptors in induction and regulation of immunity. Annu Rev Immunol 1998, 16:545-568.
27. Malhotra R, et al. Structure and homology of human C1q receptor (collectin receptor). Immunology 1993, 78:341-348.
28. Ghebrehiwet B, et al. gC1q-R/p33, a member of a new class of multifunctional and multicompartmental cellular proteins, is involved in inflammation and infection. Immunol Rev 2001, 180:65-77.
29. Nepomuceno RR, Tenner AJ C1qRP, the C1q receptor that enhances phagocytosis, is detected specifically in human cells of myeloid lineage, endothelial cells, and platelets. J Immunol 1998, 160:1929-1935.
30. Klickstein LB, et al. Complement receptor type 1 (CR1, CD35) is a receptor for C1q. Immunity 1997, 7:345-355.
31. Lozada C, et al. Identification of C1q as the heat-labile serum cofactor required for immune complexes to stimulate endothelial expression of the adhesion molecules E-selectin and intercellular and vascular cell adhesion molecules 1. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1995, 92:8378-8382.
32. Eggleton P, et al. Characterization of the human neutrophil C1q receptor and functional effects of free ligand on activated neutrophils. Blood 1994, 84:1640-1649.
33. Peerschke EI, Ghebrehiwet B. C1q augments platelet activation in response to aggregated Ig. J Immunol 1997, 159:5594-5598.
34. Guan E, et al. Cell-surface protein identified on phagocytic cells modulates the C1q-mediated enhancement of phagocytosis. J Immunol 1994, 152:4005-4016.
35. Klickstein LB, et al. Human C3b/C4b receptor (CR1). Demonstration of long homologous repeating domains that are composed of the short consensus repeats characteristics of C3/C4 binding proteins. J Exp Med 1987, 165:1095-1112.
36. Krych-Goldber M, Atkinson JP Structure-function relationships of complement receptor type 1. Immunol Rev 2001, 180:112-122.
37. Gelfand MC, Frank MM, Green I. A receptor for the third component of complement in the human renal glomerulus. J Exp Med 1975, 142:1029-1034.
38. Fearon DT Identification of the membrane glycoprotein that is the C3b receptor of the human erythrocyte, polymorphonuclear leukocyte, B lymphocyte, and monocyte. J Exp Med 1980, 152:20-30.
39. Wilson JG, Tedder TF, Fearon DT Characterization of human T lymphocytes that express the C3b receptor. J Immunol 1983, 131:684-689.
40. Iida K, Nussenzweig V. Complement receptor is an inhibitor of the complement cascade. J Exp Med 1981, 153:1138-1150.
41. Medof ME, et al. Unique role of the complement receptor CR1 in the degradation of C3b associated with immune complexes. J Exp Med 1982, 156:1739-1754.
42. Ross GD, et al. Two different complement receptors on human lymphocytes: One specific for C3b and one specific for C3b inactivator-cleaved C3b. J Exp Med 1973, 138:798-811.
43. Fang Y, et al. Expression of complement receptors 1 and 2 on follicular dendritic cells is necessary for the generation of a strong antigen-specific IgG response. J Immunol 1998, 160:5273-5279.
44. Liu YJ, et al. Follicular dendritic cells specifically express the long CR2/CD21 isoform. J Exp Med 1997, 185:165-170.
45. Weis JJ, Tedder TF, Fearon DT Identification of a 145,000 Mr membrane protein as the C3d receptor (CR2) of human B lymphocytes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1984, 81:881-885.
46. Tsoukas CD, Lambris JD Expression of EBV/C3d receptors on T cells: Biological significance. Immunol Today 1993, 14:56-59.
47. Fearon DT, Carroll MC Regulation of B lymphocyte responses to foreign and self-antigens by the CD19/CD21 complex. Annu Rev Immunol 2000, 18:393-422.
48. Dempsey PW, et al. C3d of complement as a molecular adjuvant: Bridging innate and acquired immunity. Science 1996, 271:348-350.
49. Tedder TF, Inaoki M, Sato S. The CD19-CD21 complex regulates signal transduction thresholds governing humoral immunity and autoimmunity. Immunity 1997, 6:107-118.
50. Fischer MB, et al. Dependence of germinal center B cells on expression of CD21/CD35 for survival. Science 1998, 280:582-585.
51. Micklem KJ, Sim RB Isolation of complement-fragment-iC3b-binding proteins by affinity chromatography: The identification of p150,95 as an iC3b-binding protein. Biochem J 1985, 231:233-236.
52. Miller LJ, Schwarting R, Springer TA Regulated expression of the Mac-1, LFA-1, p150,95 glycoprotein family during leukocyte differentiation. J Immunol 1986, 137:2891-2900.
53. Lo SK, et al. Two leukocyte receptors (CD11a/CD18 and CD11b/CD18) mediate transient adhesion to endothelium by binding to different ligands. J Immunol 1989, 143:3325-3329.
54. Smith CW, et al. Cooperative interactions of LFA-1 and Mac-1 with intercellular adhesion molecule-1 in facilitating adherence and transendothelial migration of human neutrophils in vitro. J Clin Invest 1989, 83:2008-2017.
55. Ehlers MR CR3: A general purpose adhesion-recognition receptor essential for innate immunity. Microbes Infection 2000, 2:289-294.
56. Schur PH Complement and lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 1982, 25:793-798.
57. Gatenby PA The role of complement in the aetiopathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus. Autoimmunity 1991, 11:61-66.
58. Walport MJ Complement and systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Res 2002, 4:S279-S293.
59. Navratil JS, Ahearn JM Apoptosis and autoimmunity: complement deficiency and systemic lupus erythematosus. Curr Rheumatol Rep 2000, 2:32-38.
60. Barilla-LaBarca ML, Atkinson JP Rheumatic syndromes associated with complement deficiency. Curr Opin Rheumatol 2003, 15:55-60.
61. Manderson AP, Botto M, Walport MJ The role of complement in the development of systemic lupus erythematosus. Annu Rev Immunol 2004, 22:431-456.
62. Carroll MC The role of complement in B cell activation and tolerance. Adv Immunol 2000, 74:61-88.
63. Schifferli JA, et al. Formation of soluble immune complexes by complement in sera of patients with various hypocomple-mentemic states: Difference between inhibition of immune precipitation and solubilization. J Clin Invest 1985, 76:2127-2133.
64. Schifferli JA, Steiger G, Schapira M. The role of C1, C1-inactivator and C4 in modulating immune precipitation. Clin Exp Immunol 1985, 60:605-612.
65. Isenman DE, Young JR The molecular basis for the difference in immune hemolysis activity of the Chido and Rodgers isotypes of human complement component C4. J Immunol 1984, 132:3019-3027.
66. Schifferli JA, et al. Difference in the biological properties of the two forms of the fourth component of human complement (C4). Clin Exp immunol 1986, 63:473-477.
67. Dodds AW, et al. The reaction mechanism of the internal thioester in the human complement component C4. Nature 1996, 379:177-179.
68. Howard PF, et al. Relationship between C4 null genes, HLA-C region antigens, and genetic susceptibility to systemic lupus erythematosus in Caucasians and black Americans. Am J Med 1986, 81:187-193.
69. Dunkley H, et al. Deficiency of C4A is a genetic determinant of systemic lupus erythematosus in three ethnic groups. Immunogenetics 1987, 14:209-218.
70. Yang Y, et al. The intricate role of complement component C4 in human systemic lupus erythematosus. Curr Dir Autoimmunity 2004, 7:98-132.
71. Taylor RP, et al. Decreased complement mediated binding of antibody/3H-dsDNA immune complexes to the red blood cells of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, and hematologic malignancies. Arthritis Rheum 1983, 26:736-744.
72. Hebert LA, Cosio G. The erythrocyte-immune complex-glomerulonephritis connection in man. Kidney Int 1987, 31:877-885.
73. Davies KA, et al. Immune complex processing in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: In vivo imaging and clearance studies. J Clin Invest 1992, 90:2075-2083.
74. Davies KA, et al. Splenic uptake of immune complexes in man is complement-dependent. J Immunol 1993, 151:3866-3873.
75. Prodeus AP, et al. A critical role for complement in maintenance of self-tolerance. Immunity 1998, 9:721-731.
76. Paul E, Carroll MC SAP-less chromatin triggers systemic lupus erythematosus. Nat Med 1999, 5:607-608.
77. Gommerman JL, Carroll MC Negative selection of B lymphocytes: A novel role for innate immunity. Immunol Rev 2000, 173:120-130.
78. Korb LC, Ahearn JM Apoptotic keratinocytes interact directly and specifically with human C1q. Mol Immunol 1996, 33(1):66.
79. Korb LC, Ahearn JM C1q binds directly and specifically to surface blebs of apoptotic human keratinocytes: Complement deficiency and systemic lupus erythematosus revisited. J Immunol 1997, 158:4525-4528.
80. Navratil JS, et al. The globular heads of C1q specifically recognize surface blebs of apoptotic vascular endothelial cells. J Immunol 2001, 166:3231-3239.
81. Mevorach D, et al. Complement-dependent clearance of apoptotic cells by human macrophages. J Exp Med 1998, 188:2313-2320.
82. Nauta AJ, et al. Direct binding of C1q to apoptotic cells and cell blebs induces complement activation. Eur J Immunol 2002, 32:1726-1736.
83. Casciola-Rosen LA, Anhalt G, Rosen A. Autoantigens targeted in systemic lupus erythematosus are clustered in two populations of surface structures on apoptotic keratinocytes. J Exp Med 1994, 179:1317-1330.
84. Rosen A, Casciola-Rosen L, Ahearn J. Novel packages of viral and self-antigens are generated during apoptosis. J Exp Med 1995, 181:1557-1561.
85. Casciola-Rosen L, et al. Cleavage by granzyme B is strongly predictive of autoantigen status: Implications for initiation of autoimmunity. J Exp Med 1999, 190:815-825.
86. Rosen A, Casciola-Rosen L. Autoantigens as substrates for apoptotic proteases: Implications for the pathogenesis of systemic autoimmmune disease. Cell Death Different 1999, 6:6-12.
87. Liu CC, et al. Apoptosis, complement, and SLE: A mechanistic view. Curr Dir Autoimmunity 2004, 7:49-86.
88. Botto M, et al. Homozygous C1q deficiency causes glomerulonephritis associated with multiple apoptotic bodies. Nat Genet 1998, 19:56-59.
89. Taylor PR, et al. A hierarchical role for classical pathway complement proteins in the clearance of apoptotic cells in vivo. J Exp Med 2000, 192(3):359-366.
90. Brandt L, Hedberg H. Impaired phagocytosis by peripheral blood granulocytes in systemic lupus erythematosus. Scand J Hematol 1969, 6:348-353.
91. Landry M. Phagocyte function and cell-mediated immunity in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arch Dermatol 1977, 113:147-154.
92. Hurst NP, Nuki G, Wallington T. Evidence for intrinsic cellular defects of 'complement' receptor-mediated phagocytosis in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Clin Exp Immuno 1984, 55:303-312.
93. Herrmann M, et al. Impaired phagocytosis of apoptotic cell material by monocyte-derived macrophages from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 1998, 41:1241-1250.
94. Shoshan Y, et al. Accelerated Fas-mediated apoptosis of monocytes and maturing macrophages from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: Relevance to in vitro impairment of interaction with iC3b-opsonized apoptotic cells. J Immunol 2001, 167:5963-5969.
95. Baumann I, et al. Impaired uptake of apoptotic cells into tingible body macrophages in germinal centers of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 2002, 46:191-201.
96. Miyakawa Y, et al. Defective immune-adherence (C3b) receptor on erythrocytes from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Lancet 1981, 2:493-497.
97. Iida K, Mornaghi R, Nussenzweig V. Complement receptor (CR1) deficiency in erythrocytes from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Exp Med 1982, 155:1427-1438.
98. Wilson JG, et al. Mode of inheritance of decreased C3b receptors on erythrocytes of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. N Engl J Med 1982, 307:981-986.
99. Minota S, et al. Low C3b receptor reactivity on erythrocytes from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus detected by immune adherence hemagglutination and radioimmunoassays with monoclonal antibody. Arthritis Rheum 1984, 27:1329-1335.
100. Uko G, et al. CR1 deficiency in SLE: acquired or genetic?. Clin Exp Immunol 1985, 62:329-336.
101. Walport MJ, et al. Family studies of erythrocyte complement receptor type 1 levels: Reduced levels in patients with SLE are acquired, not inherited. Clin Exp Immunol 1985, 59:547-554.
102. Wilson JG, et al. Deficiency of the C3b/C4b receptor (CR1) of erythrocytes in systemic lupus erythematosus: Analysis of the stability of the defect and of a restriction fragment length polymorphism of the CR1 gene. J Immunol 1987, 138:2708-2710.
103. Moldenhauer F, et al. Inherited deficiency of erythrocyte complement receptor type 1 does not cause susceptibility to systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 1987, 30:961-966.
104. Ross GD, et al. Disease-associated loss of erythrocyte complement receptors (CR1, C3b receptors) in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus and other diseases involving autoantibodies and/or complement activation. J Immunol 1985, 135:2005-2014.
105. Corvetta A, et al. Low number of complement C3b/C4b receptors (CR1) on erythrocytes from patients with essential mixed cryoglobulinemia, systemic lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis: Relationship with disease activity, anticardiolipin antibodies, complement activation and therapy. J Rheumatol 1991, 18:1021-1025.
106. Cohen JH, et al. Peripheral catabolism of CR1 (the C3b receptor, CD35) on erythrocytes from healthy individuals and patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Clin Exp Immunol 1992, 87:422-428.
107. Kumar A, et al. Hind III genomic polymorphism of the C3b receptor (CR1) in patients with SLE: low erythrocyte CR1 expression is an acquired phenomenon. Immunol Cell Biol 1995, 73:457-462.
108. Kiss E, et al. CR1 density polymorphism and expression on erythrocytes of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Autoimmunity 1996, 25:53-58.
109. Satoh H, et al. Distribution of the HindIII restriction fragment length polymorphism among patients with systemic lupus erythematosus with different concentrations of CR1. Ann Rheum Dis 1991, 50:765-768.
110. Jepsen HH, et al. Immune complex binding to erythrocyte-CR1 (CD 35), CR1 expression and levels of erythrocyte-fixed C3 fragments in SLE outpatients. APMIS 1990, 98:637-644.
111. Wilson JG, et al. Identification of a restriction fragment length polymorphism by a CR1 cDNA that correlates with the number of CR1 on erythrocytes. J Exp Med 1986, 164:50-59.
112. Walport M, Ng YC, Lachmann PJ Erythrocytes transfused into patients with SLE and haemolytic anaemia lose complement receptor type 1 from their cell surface. Clin Exp Immunol 1987, 69:501-507.
113. Lach-Trifilieff E, et al. Complement receptor 1 (CD35) on human reticulocytes: Normal expression in systemic lupus erythematosus and HIV-infected patients. J Immunol 1999, 162:7549-7554.
114. Wilson JG, et al. Decreased expression of the C3b/C4b receptor (CR1) and the C3d receptor (CR2) on B lymphocytes and of CR1 on neutrophils of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 1986, 29:739-747.
115. Levy E, et al. T lymphocyte expression of complement receptor 2 (CR2/CD21): A role in adhesive cell-cell interactions and dysregulation in a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Clin Exp Immunol 1992, 90:235-244.
116. Marquart HV, et al. Complement receptor expression and activation of the complement cascade on B lymphocytes from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Clin Exp Immunol 1995, 101:60-65.
117. Takahashi K, et al. Mouse complement receptors type 1 (CR1;CD35) and type 2 (CR2;CD21): Expression on normal B cell subpopulations and decreased levels during the development of autoimmunity in MRL/lpr mice. J Immunol 1997, 159:1557-1569.
118. Kurtz CB, et al. The murine complement receptor gene family IV. Alternative splicing of Cr2 gene transcripts predicts two distinct gene products that share homologous domains with both human CR2 and CR1. J Immunol 1990, 144:3581-3591.
119. Ahearn JM, et al. Disruption of the Cr2 locus results in a reduction in B-1a cells and in an impaired B cell response to T-dependent antigen. Immunity 1996, 4:251-262.
120. Molina H, et al. Markedly impaired humoral immune response in mice deficient in complement receptors 1 and 2. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996, 93:3357-3361.
121. Wu X, et al. A role for the Cr2 gene in modifying autoantibody production in systemic lupus erythematosus. J Immunol 2002, 169:1587-1592.
122. Nguyen C, Limaye N, Wakeland EK Susceptibility genes in the pathogenesis of murine lupus. Arthritis Research 2002, 4:S255-S263.
123. Boackle SA, et al. Cr2, a candidate gene in the murine Sle1c lupus susceptibility locus, encodes a dysfunctional protein. Immunity 2001, 15:775-785.
124. Boackle SA Complement and autoimmunity. Biomed Pharmacother 2003, 57:269-273.
125. Gray JD, et al. Studies on human blood lymphocytes with iC3b (type 3) complement receptors: III. Abnormalities in patients with active systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin Exp Immunol 1987, 67:556-564.
126. Witte T, et al. Defect of a complement receptor 3 epitope in a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Clin Invest 1993, 92:1181-1187.
127. Arnaout MA, et al. Deficiency of a granulocyte-membrane glycoprotein (gp150) in a boy with recurrent bacterial infections. N Engl J Med 1982, 306:693-699.
128. Anderson DC, Springer TA Leukocyte adhesion deficiency: an inherited defect in the Mac-1, LFA-1, and p150,95 glycoproteins. Annu Rev Med 1987, 38:175-194.
129. Buyon JP, et al. Surface expression of Gp 165/95, the complement receptor CR3, as a marker of disease activity in systemic Lupus erythematosus. Clin Immunol Immunopathol 1988, 46:141-149.
130. Cameron JS, et al. Disease activity in the nephritis of systemic lupus erythmatosus in relation to serum complement concentrations, DNA-binidng capacity, and precipitating anti-DNA antibody. Clin Exp Immunol 1976, 25:418-427.
131. Lloyd W, Schur PH Immune complexes, complement, and anti-DNA in exacerbations of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Medicine (Baltimore) 1981, 60:208-217.
132. Valentijn RM, et al. The value of complement and immune complex determinations in monitoring disease activity in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 1985, 28:904-913.
133. Ricker DM, et al. Serum C3 levels are diagnostically more sensitive and specific for systemic lupus erythematosus activity than are serum C4 levels. Am J Kidney Dis 1991, 19:678-685.
134. Ting C-K, Hsieh K-H A long term immunological study of childhood onset systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann Rheum Dis 1992, 51:45-51.
135. Milis L, et al. The value of complment measurements i the assessment of lupus activity. Austr NZ J Med 1992, 22:338-344.
136. Swaak AJ, Groenwold J, Bronsveld W. Pedictive value of complement profiles and anti-dsDNA in systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann Rheum Dis 1986, 45:359-366.
137. Esdaile JM, et al. Routine immunologic tests in systemic lupus erythematosus: Is there a need for more studies?. J Rheumatol 1996, 23:1891-1896.
138. Abrass CK, et al. Correlation and predictive accuracy of circulating immune complexes with disease activity in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 1980, 23:273-282.
139. Morrow WJW, et al. Useful laboratory measurements in the management of systemic lupus erythematosus. QJM 1982, 202:125-138.
140. Horak P, et al. Clinical utility of selected disease activity markers in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin Rheumatol 2001, 20:337-344.
141. Kerr LD, et al. Factor B activation products in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 1989, 32:1406-1413.
142. Gawryl MS, et al. The terminal complement complex, C5b-9, a marker of disease activity in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 1988, 31:188-195.
143. Gladman DD, Urowitz MB, Keystone EC Serologically active clinically quiescent systemic lupus erythematosus. Am J Med 2003, 66:210-215.
144. Walz LeBlanc BA, Gladman DD, Urowitz MB Serologically active clinically quiescent systemic lupus erythematosus-predictors of clinical flares. J Rheumatol 1994, 21:2239-2241.
145. Sturfelt G, Jonasson L, Sjoholm AG Sequential studies of complement activation in systemic lupus erythematosus. Scand J Rheumatol 1985, 14:184-196.
146. Senaldi G, et al. Correlation of the activation of the fourth component of complement (C4) with disease activity in systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann Rheum Dis 1988, 47:913-917.
147. Belmont HM, et al. Complement activation during systemic lupus erythematosus. C3a and C5a anaphylatoxins circulate during exacerbations of disease. Arthritis Rheum 1986, 29:1085-1089.
148. Hopkins P, et al. Increased levels of plasma anaphylatoxins in systemic lupus erythematosus predict flares of the disease and may elicit vascular injury in lupus cerebritis. Arthritis Rheum 1988, 31:632-641.
149. Wild G, et al. C4a anaphylatoxin levels as an indicator of disease activity in systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin Exp Immunol 1990, 80:167-170.
150. Porcel JM, et al. The value of complement activation products in the assessment of systmeic lupus erythematosus flares. Clin Immunol Immunopathol 1995, 74:283-288.
151. Negoro N, et al. The clinical significance of iC3b neoantigen expression in plasma from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 1989, 32:1233-1242.
152. Perrin LH, Lambert PH, Miescher PA Complement breakdown products in plasma from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus and patients with membranoproliferative or other glomerulonephtitis. J Clin Invest 1975, 56:165-176.
153. Buyon JP, et al. Assessment of disease activity and impending flare in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: Comparison of the use of complement split products and conventional measurements of complement. Arthritis Rheum 1992, 35:1028-1037.
154. Manzi S, et al. Sensitivity and specificity of plasma and urine complement split products as indicators of lupus disease activity. Arthritis Rheum 1996, 39:1178-1188.
155. Rother E, et al. Complement split product C3d as an indicator of disease activity in systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin Rheumatol 1993, 12:31-35.
156. Falk RJ, et al. Radioimmunoassay of the attack complex of complement in serum from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. N Engl J Med 1985, 312:1594-1599.
157. Chiu YY, et al. SC5b-9 is the most sensitive marker in assessing disease activity in Brazilian SLE patients. J Investig Allegrol Clin Immunol 1998, 8:239-244.
158. Mollnes TE, et al. Complement activation in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus without nephritis. Rheumatology 1999, 38:933-940.
159. Nagy G, et al. Usefulness of detection of complement activation products in evaluating SLE activity. Lupus 2000, 9:19-25.
160. Clough JD, Chang RK Effectiveness of testing for anti-DNA and the complement components iC3b, Bb, and C4 in the assessment of activity of systemic lupus erythematosus. J Clin Lab Anal 1990, 4:268-273.
161. Kerr LD, Adelsberg BR, Spiera H. Complement activation in systemic lupus erythematosus: a marker of inflammation. J Rheumatol 1986, 13:313-319.
162. Tsukamoto H, et al. Molecular analysis of a novel hereditary C3 deficiency with systemic lupus erythematosus. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2005, 330:298-304.
163. Sturfelt G, Sjoholm AG Complement components, complement activation, and acute phase response in systemic lupus erythematosus. Int Arch Allergy Appl Immunol 1984, 75:75-83.
164. Gabay C, Kushner I. Acute-phase proteins and other systemic responses to inflammation. N Engl J Med 1999, 340:448-454.
165. Alper CA, Rosen FS Studies of the in vivo behavior of human C3 in normal subjects and patients. J Clin Invest 1967, 46:2021-2034.
166. Hunsicker LG, et al. Metabolism of third complement component (C3) in nephritis: Involvement of the classic and alternate (properdin) pathways for complement activation. N Engl J Med 1972, 287:835-840.
167. Charlesworth JA, et al. Hypercatabolism of C3 and C4 in active and inactive systemic lupus erythematosus. Annals of Rheumatic Diseases 1989, 48:153-159.
168. Sliwinski JA, Zvaifler NJ Decreased synthesis of the third component (C3) in hypocomplementemic systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin Exp Immunol 1972, 11:21-29.
169. Tsukamoto H, et al. Increased production of the third component of complement (C3) by monocytes from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin Exp Immunol 1990, 82:257-261.
170. Ponticelli C, Moroni G. Lupus nephritis. J Nephrol 2000, 13:385-399.
171. Pillemer SR, et al. Lupus nephritis: Association between serology and renal biopsy measures. J Rheumatol 1988, 15:284-288.
172. Manger K, et al. Definition of risk factors for death, end stage renal disease, and thromboembolic events in a monocentric cohort of 338 patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann Rheum Dis 2002, 61:1065-1070.
173. Gunnarsson I, et al. Repeated renal biopsy in proliferative lupus nephritis: Predictive role of serum C1q and albuminuria. J Rheumatol 2002, 29:693-699.
174. Kelly RH, et al. Complement C3 fragments in urine detection in systemic lupus erythematosus patients by Western Blotting. Appl Theor Electroph 1993, 3:265-269.
175. Negi VS, et al. Complement degradation product C3d in urine: Marker of lupus nephritis. J Rheumatol 2000, 27:380-383.
176. Ho A, et al. A decrease in complement is associated with increased renal and hematologic activity in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 2001, 44:2350-2357.
177. Pekin TJ, Zvaifler NJ Synovial fluid findings in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Arthritis Rheum 1970, 13:777-785.
178. Hunder GG, McDuffie FC, Hepper NGG Pleural fluid complement in systemic lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Intern Med 1972, 76:357-363.
179. Kinney E, et al. Pericardial-fluid complement. Am J Clin Pathol 1979, 72:972-974.
180. Goldenberg DL, Leff G, Grayzel AI Pericardial tamponade in systemic lupus erythematosus with absent hemolytic complement activity in pericardial fluid. NY State J Med 1975, 75:910-912.
181. Hunder GG, Mullen BJ, McDuffie FC Complement in pericardial fluid of lupus erythematosus. Ann Intern Med 1974, 80:453-458.
182. Petz LD, et al. Serum and cerebrospinal fluid complement and serum autoantibodies in systemic lupus erythematosus. Medicine 1971, 50:259-275.
183. Sanders ME, et al. Detection of activated terminal complement (C5b-9) in cerebraospinal fluid from patients with central nervous system involvement of primary Sjogren's syndrome or systemic lupus erythematosus. J Immunol 1987, 138:2095-2099.
184. Jongen PJH, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid C3 and C4 indexes in immunological disorders of the central nervous system. Acta Neurol Scand 2000, 101:116-121.
185. Manzi S, et al. Measurement of erythrocyte C4d and complement receptor 1 in the diagnosis of systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 2004, 50:3596-3604.
186. Liu CC, et al. Reticulocytes bearing C4d as biomarkers of disease activity for systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 2005, 52:3087-3099.
187. Tieley CA, Romans DG, Crookston MC Localization of Chido and Todgers determinants to the C4d fragment of human C4. Nature 1978, 276:713-715.
188. Atkinson JP, et al. Origin of the fourth component of complement related Chido and Rodgers blood group antigens. Complement 1988, 5:65-76.
189. Navratil JS, Manzi S, Kao AH, Krishnaswami S, Liu C-C, Ruffing MR, et al. Platelet-C4d is highly specific for systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthriti Rheum 2002, 54:670-674.
190. Morgan BP, Harris CL Complement therapeutics: History and current progress. Mol Immunol 2003, 40:159-170.
191. Sahu A, Lambris JD Complement inhibitors: a resurgent concept in anti-inflammatory therapeutics. Immunopharmacology 2000, 49:133-148.
192. Hill J, et al. Soluble complement receptor type 1 ameliorates the local and remote organ injury after intestinal ischemia-reperfusion in the rat. J Immunol 1992, 149:1723-1728.
193. Couser WG, et al. The effects of soluble recombinant complement receptor 1 on complement-mediated experimental glomerulonephritis. J Am Soc Nephrol 1995, 5:1888-1894.
194. Weisman HF, et al. Soluble human complement receptor type 1: In vivo inhibitor of complement suppressing post-ischemic myocardial inflammation and necrosis. Science 1990, 249:146-151.
195. Weiler JM, et al. Modulation of the formation of the amplification convertase of complement, C3b, Bb, by native and commercial heparin. J Exp Med 1978, 147:409-421.
196. Weiler JM, et al. Heparin and modified heparin inhibit complement activation in vivo. J Immunol 1992, 148:3210-3215.
197. Mulligan MS, et al. Endothelial targeting and enhanced antiinflammatory effects of complement inhibitors possessing sialyl Lewis × moieties. J Immunol 1999, 162:4952-4959.
198. Girardi G, Redecha P, Salmon JE Heparin prevents antiphospholipid antibody-induced fetal loss by inhibiting complement activation. Nature Medicine 2004, 10:1222-1226.
199. Sahu A, Morikis D, Lambris JD Compstatin, a peptide inhibitor of complement, exhibits species-specific binding to complement component C3. Mol Immunol 2003, 39:557-566.
200. Thomas TC, et al. Inhibition of complement activity by humanized anti-C5 antibody and single-chain Fv. Mol Immunol 1996, 33:1389-1401.
201. Fitch JC, et al. Pharmacology and biological efficacy of a recombinant, humanized, single-chain antibody C5 complement inhibitor in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass graft surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass. Circulation 1999, 100:2499-2506.
202. Kaplan M. Eculizumab (Alexion). Curr Opin Invest Drugs 2002, 3:1017-1023.
203. Whiss PA Pexelizumab Alexion. Curr Opin Invest Drugs 2002, 3:870-877.
204. Wang Y, et al. Amelioration of lupus-like autoimmune disease in NZB/WF1 mice after treatment with a blocking monoclonal antibody specific for complement component C5. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996, 93:8563-8568.
205. Riley RD, et al. Recombinant human complement C5a receptor antagonist reduces infarct size after surgical revascularization. J Thorac Cardiovas Surg 2000, 120:350-358.
206. Arumugam TV, et al. A small molecule C5a receptor antagonist protects kidneys from ischemia/reperfusion injury in rats. Kidney International 2003, 63:134-142.
207. Sumichika H. C5a receptor antagonists for the treatment of inflammation. Curr Opin Invest Drugs 2004, 5:505-510.
208. Rother RP, Mojcik CF, McCroskery EW Inhibition of terminal complement: A novel therapeutic approach for the treatment of systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 2004, 13:328-334.
209. Esdaile JM, et al. Laboratory tests as predictors of disease exacerbations in systemic lupus erythematosus: why some tests fail. Arthritis Rheum 1996, 39:370-378.
210. Swaak AJ, et al. Correlation of disease activity with circulating immune complexes (C1qbA) and complement breakdown products (C3d) in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Rheumatol Int 1985, 5:215-220.
211. Liu CC, Denchenko N, Navratil JS, Nilson SE, Manzi S, Ahearn JM Mining the complement system for lupus biomarkers. Clin Appl Immunol Rev 2005, 5:185-206.