Pandemic influenza a (H1N1) virus infection and avian influenza a (H5N1) virus infection: A comparative analysis

Biochemistry and Cell Biology

Volumn 88, Issue 4, 2010, Pages 575-587

  Korteweg, Christine ^a   Gu, Jiang ^b  

^a SHANTOU UNIVERSITY MEDICAL COLLEGE   (China)

^b PEKING UNIVERSITY HEALTH SCIENCE CENTER   (China)

Author keywords

Avian influenza; H1n1; H5n1; Human influenza; Pathogenesis; Pathology; Receptor; Swine influenza

Indexed keywords

AVIAN INFLUENZA; CLINICAL FEATURES; COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS; FATALITY RATES; HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM; INFLUENZA A; INFLUENZA A VIRUS; INFLUENZA PANDEMICS; INFLUENZA VIRUS; PANDEMIC INFLUENZA; VIRUS INFECTION;

HEALTH RISKS; PATHOLOGY; RESPIRATORY SYSTEM;

VIRUSES;

CELECOXIB; CELL PROTEIN; HEMAGGLUTININ; MESALAZINE; NONSTRUCTURAL PROTEIN; PROTEIN M2; PROTEIN PB1 F2; SIALIDASE; STRUCTURAL PROTEIN; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; ZANAMIVIR;

AVIAN INFLUENZA; CLINICAL FEATURE; INFLUENZA A (H1N1); PANDEMIC; PATHOGENESIS; PATHOGENICITY; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; REVIEW; VIRUS CLASSIFICATION; VIRUS REPLICATION; VIRUS STRAIN; VIRUS TRANSMISSION;

ANIMALS; BIRDS; HUMANS; INFLUENZA A VIRUS, H1N1 SUBTYPE; INFLUENZA A VIRUS, H5N1 SUBTYPE; INFLUENZA IN BIRDS; INFLUENZA, HUMAN; PANDEMICS; POULTRY;

AVES; INFLUENZA A VIRUS; ORTHOMYXOVIRIDAE; SUIDAE;

EID: 77954912475     PISSN: 08298211     EISSN: 12086002     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1139/O10-017     Document Type: Review

References (120)

1. Abdel-Ghafar, A.N., Chotpitayasunondh, T., Gao, Z., Hayden, F.G., Nguyen, D.H., de Jong, M.D., et al. 2008. Update on avian influenza A (H5N1) virus infection in humans. N. Engl. J. Med. 358(3): 261-273. doi:10.1056/NEJMra0707279. PMID:18199865.
2. Amarillo. 2009. Amarillo biosciences selects accelovance for its next influenza study. Accessed 17 January 2010. Available from www.amarbio.com/Latest/amarillo-biosciences-selects-accelovance-for-its-next-influenza-study.html.
3. Aubin, I., Adams, C.P., Opsahl, S., Septier, D., Bishop, C.E., Auge, N., et al. 2005. A deletion in the gene encoding sphingomyelin phosphodiesterase 3 (Smpd3) results in osteogenesis and dentinogenesis imperfecta in the mouse. Nat. Genet. 37(8): 803-805. doi:10.1038/ng1603. PMID:16025116.
4. Auewarakul, P., Suptawiwat, O., Kongchanagul, A., Sangma, C., Suzuki, Y., Ungchusak, K., et al. 2007. An avian influenza H5N1 virus that binds to a human-type receptor. J. Virol. 81(18): 9950-9955. doi:10.1128/JVI.00468-07. PMID:17626098.
5. Baskin, C.R., Bielefeldt-Ohmann, H., Tumpey, T.M., Sabourin, P.J., Long, J.P., García-Sastre, A., et al. 2009. Early and sustained innate immune response defines pathology and death in nonhuman primates infected by highly pathogenic influenza virus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 106(9): 3455-3460. doi:10. 1073/pnas.0813234106. PMID:19218453.
6. Beilharz, M.W., Cummins, J.M., and Bennett, A.L. 2007. Protection from lethal influenza virus challenge by oral type 1 interferon. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 355(3): 740-744. doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2007.02.019. PMID:17316562.
7. Bresson, J.L., Perronne, C., Launay, O., Gerdil, C., Saville, M., Wood, J., et al. 2006. Safety and immunogenicity of an inactivated split-virion influenza A/Vietnam/1194/2004 (H5N1) vaccine: phase I randomised trial. Lancet, 367(9523): 1657-1664. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68656-X. PMID:16714186.
8. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2009a. Neurologic complications associated with novel influenza A (H1N1) virus infection in children Dallas, Texas, May 2009. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 58(28): 773-778. PMID:19629027.
9. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2009b. Intensive-care patients with severe novel influenza A (H1N1) virus infection Michigan, June. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 58(27): 749-752. PMID:19609249.
10. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2009c. Bacterial coinfections in lung tissue specimens from fatal cases of 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1) United States, May-August 2009. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 58(38): 1071-1074. PMID:19798021.
11. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2009d. Deaths related to 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1) among American Indian/Alaska Natives 12 states, 2009. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 58(48): 1341-1344. PMID:20010508.
12. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2009e. Serum cross-reactive antibody response to a novel influenza A (H1N1) virus after vaccination with seasonal influenza vaccine. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 58(19): 521-524. PMID:19478718.
13. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2009f. Oseltamivir-resistant novel influenza A (H1N1) virus infection in two immunosuppressed patients Seattle, Washington, 2009. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 58(32): 893-896. PMID: 19696719.
14. Chan, M.C., Cheung, C.Y., Chui, W.H., Tsao, S.W., Nicholls, J.M., Chan, Y.O., et al. 2005. Proinflammatory cytokine responses induced by influenza A (H5N1) viruses in primary human alveolar and bronchial epithelial cells. Respir. Res. 6(1): doi:10.1186/1465-9921-6-135. PMID:16283933.
15. Chen, W., Calvo, P.A., Malide, D., Gibbs, J., Schubert, U., Bacik, I., et al. 2001. A novel influenza A virus mitochondrial protein that induces cell death. Nat. Med. 7(12): 1306-1312. doi:10.1038/nm1201-1306. PMID:11726970.
16. Cheung, C.Y., Poon, L.L., Lau, A.S., Luk, W., Lau, Y.L., Shortridge, K.F., et al. 2002. Induction of proinflammatory cytokines in human macrophages by influenza A (H5N1) viruses: a mechanism for the unusual severity of human disease? Lancet, 360(9348): 1831-1837. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(02)11772-7. PMID:12480361.
17. Childs, R.A., Palma, A.S., Wharton, S., Matrosovich, T., Liu, Y., Chai, W., et al. 2009. Receptor-binding specificity of pandemic influenza A (H1N1) 2009 virus determined by carbohydrate microarray. Nat. Biotechnol. 27(9): 797-799.doi:10.1038/nbt0909-797. PMID:19741625.
18. Chutinimitkul, S., Bhattarakosol, P., Srisuratanon, S., Eiamudomkan, A., Kongsomboon, K., Damrongwatanapokin, S., et al. 2006. H5N1 influenza A virus and infected human plasma. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 12(6): 1041-1043. PMID:16752481.
19. Claas, E.C., Osterhaus, A.D., van Beek, R., De Jong, J.C., Rimmelzwaan, G.F., Senne, D.A., et al. 1998. Human influenza A H5N1 virus related to a highly pathogenic avian influenza virus. Lancet, 351(9101): 472-477.doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(97)11212-0. PMID:9482438.
20. Conenello, G.M., Zamarin, D., Perrone, L.A., Tumpey, T., and Palese, P. 2007. A single mutation in the PB1-F2 of H5N1 (HK/ 97) and 1918 influenza A viruses contributes to increased virulence. PLoS Pathog. 3(10): 1414-1421.doi:10.1371/journal.ppat. 0030141. PMID:17922571.
21. Dawood, F.S., Jain, S., Finelli, L., Shaw, M.W., Lindstrom, S., Garten, R.J., et al. 2009. Emergence of a novel swine-origin influenza A (H1N1) virus in humans. N. Engl. J. Med. 360(25): 2605-2615. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa0903810. PMID:19423869.
22. de Jong, M.D., Bach, V.C., Phan, T.Q., Vo, M.H., Tran, T.T., Nguyen, B.H., et al. 2005a. Fatal avian influenza A (H5N1) in a child presenting with diarrhea followed by coma. N. Engl. J. Med. 352(7): 686-691.doi:10.1056/NEJMoa044307. PMID:15716562.
23. de Jong, M.D., Tran, T.T., Truong, H.K., Vo, M.H., Smith, G.J., Nguyen, V.C., et al. 2005b. Oseltamivir resistance during treatment of influenza A (H5N1) infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 353(25): 2667-2672. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa054512. PMID:16371632.
24. de Jong, M.D., Simmons, C.P., Thanh, T.T., Hien, V.M., Smith, G.J., Chau, T.N., et al. 2006. Fatal outcome of human influenza A (H5N1) is associated with high viral load and hypercytokinemia. Nat. Med. 12(10): 1203-1207.doi:10.1038/nm1477. PMID: 16964257.
25. Eash, S., Tavares, R., Stopa, E.G., Robbins, S.H., Brossay, L., and Atwood, W.J. 2004. Differential distribution of the JC gvirus receptor-type sialic acid in normal human tissues. Am. J. Pathol. 164(2): 419-428.PMID:14742248.
26. García-Sastre, A. 2006. Antiviral response in pandemic influenza viruses. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 12(1): 44-47. PMID:16494716.
27. Garske, T., Legrand, J., Donnelly, C.A., Ward, H., Cauchemez, S., Fraser, C., et al. 2009. Assessing the severity of the novel influenza A/H1N1 pandemic. BMJ, 339(jul14 3): b2840.doi:10.1136/bmj.b2840. PMID:19602714.
28. Garten, R.J., Davis, C.T., Russell, C.A., Shu, B., Lindstrom, S., Balish, A., et al. 2009. Antigenic and genetic characteristics of swine-origin 2009 A(H1N1) influenza viruses circulating in humans. Science, 325(5937): 197-201.doi:10.1126/science.1176225. PMID:19465683.
29. Govorkova, E.A., Rehg, J.E., Krauss, S., Yen, H.L., Guan, Y., Peiris, M., et al. 2005. Lethality to ferrets of H5N1 influenza viruses isolated from humans and poultry in 2004. J. Virol.79(4): 2191-2198.doi:10.1128/JVI.79.4.2191-2198.2005.PMID:15681421.
30. Gu, J., Xie, Z., Gao, Z., Liu, J., Korteweg, C., Ye, J., et al. 2007. H5N1 infection of the respiratory tract and beyond: a molecular pathology study. Lancet, 370(9593): 1137-1145. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61515-3. PMID:17905166.
31. Hancock, K., Veguilla, V., Lu, X., Zhong, W., Butler, E.N., Sun, H., et al. 2009. Cross-reactive antibody responses to the 2009 pandemic H1N1 influenza virus. N. Engl. J. Med. 361(20): 1945-1952. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa0906453. PMID:19745214.
32. Hatta, M., Gao, P., Halfmann, P., and Kawaoka, Y. 2001. Molecular basis for high virulence of Hong Kong H5N1 influenza A viruses. Science, 293(5536): 1840-1842. doi:10.1126/science. 1062882. PMID:11546875.
33. Hatta, M., Hatta, Y., Kim, J.H., Watanabe, S., Shinya, K., Nguyen, T., et al. 2007. Growth of H5N1 influenza A viruses in the upper respiratory tracts of mice. PLoS Pathog. 3(10): 1374-1379. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.0030133. PMID:17922570.
34. He, L., Ding, Y., Zhang, Q., Che, X., He, Y., Shen, H., et al. 2006. Expression of elevated levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines in SARS-CoV-infected ACE2+ cells in SARS patients: relation to the acute lung injury and pathogenesis of SARS. J. Pathol. 210(3): 288-297.doi:10.1002/path.2067. PMID:17031779.
35. Hiromoto, Y., Yamazaki, Y., Fukushima, T., Saito, T., Lindstrom, S.E., Omoe, K., et al. 2000. Evolutionary characterization of the six internal genes of H5N1 human influenza A virus. J. Gen. Virol. 81(Pt 5): 1293-1303. PMID:10769072.
36. Horimoto, T., and Kawaoka, Y. 1994. Reverse genetics provides direct evidence for a correlation of hemagglutinin cleavability and virulence of an avian influenza A virus. J. Virol. 68(5): 3120-3128. PMID:8151777.
37. Horimoto, T., and Kawaoka, Y. 2001. Pandemic threat posed by avian influenza A viruses. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 14(1): 129-149. doi:10.1128/CMR.14.1.129-149.2001. PMID:11148006.
38. Hsieh, S.M., and Chang, S.C. 2006. Insufficient perforin expression in CD8+ T cells in response to hemagglutinin from avian influ-enza (H5N1) virus. J. Immunol. 176(8): 4530-4533. PMID:16585542.
39. Ito, T., Couceiro, J.N., Kelm, S., Baum, L.G., Krauss, S., Castrucci, M.R., et al. 1998. Molecular basis for the generation in pigs of influenza A viruses with pandemic potential. J. Virol. 72(9): 7367-7373. PMID:9696833.
40. Itoh, Y., Shinya, K., Kiso, M., Watanabe, T., Sakoda, Y., Hatta, M., et al. 2009. In vitro and in vivo characterization of new swine-origin H1N1 influenza viruses. Nature, 460(7258): 1021-1025. PMID:19672242.
41. Jackson, D., Hossain, M.J., Hickman, D., Perez, D.R., and Lamb, R.A. 2008. A new influenza virus virulence determinant: the NS1 protein four C-terminal residues modulate pathogenicity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 105(11): 4381-4386. doi:10.1073/ pnas.0800482105. PMID:18334632.
42. Jamieson, D.J., Honein, M.A., Rasmussen, S.A., Williams, J.L., Swerdlow, D.L., Biggerstaff, M.S., et al.; Novel Influenza A (H1N1) Pregnancy Working Group. 2009. H1N1 2009 influenza virus infection during pregnancy in the USA. Lancet, 374(9688): 451-458. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61304-0. PMID:19643469.
43. Jiao, P., Tian, G., Li, Y., Deng, G., Jiang, Y., Liu, C., et al. 2008. A single-amino-acid substitution in the NS1 protein changes the pathogenicity of H5N1 avian influenza viruses in mice. J. Virol. 82(3): 1146-1154. doi:10.1128/JVI.01698-07. PMID:18032512.
44. Johnson, N.P., and Mueller, J. 2002. Updating the accounts: global mortality of the 1918-1920 "Spanish" influenza pandemic. Bull. Hist. Med. 76(1): 105-115. doi:10.1353/bhm.2002.0022. PMID: 11875246.
45. Kawaoka, Y., Krauss, S., and Webster, R.G. 1989. Avian-to-human transmission of the PB1 gene of influenza A viruses in the 1957 and 1968 pandemics. J. Virol. 63(11): 4603-4608. PMID: 2795713.
46. Kobasa, D., Jones, S.M., Shinya, K., Kash, J.C., Copps, J., Ebihara, H., et al. 2007. Aberrant innate immune response in lethal infection of macaques with the 1918 influenza virus. Nature, 445(7125): 319-323. doi:10.1038/nature05495. PMID:17230189.
47. Korteweg, C., and Gu, J. 2008. Pathology, molecular biology, and pathogenesis of avian influenza A (H5N1) infection in humans. Am. J. Pathol. 172(5): 1155-1170. doi:10.2353/ajpath.2008.070791. PMID:18403604.
48. Kugel, D., Kochs, G., Obojes, K., Roth, J., Kobinger, G.P., Kobasa, D., et al. 2009. Intranasal administration of alpha interferon reduces seasonal influenza A virus morbidity in ferrets. J. Virol. 83(8): 3843-3851. doi:10.1128/JVI.02453-08. PMID:19193792.
49. Kumar, A., Zarychanski, R., Pinto, R., Cook, D.J., Marshall, J., Lacroix, J., et al.; Canadian Critical Care Trials Group H1N1 Collaborative. 2009. Critically ill patients with 2009 influenza A(H1N1) infection in Canada. JAMA, 302(17): 1872-1879.doi:10.1001/jama.2009.1496. PMID:19822627.
50. La Ruche, G., Tarantola, A., Barboza, P., Vaillant, L., Gueguen, J., Gastellu-Etchegorry, M., et al. 2009. The 2009 pandemic H1N1 influenza and indigenous populations of the Americas and the Pacific. Euro. Surveill. 14(42): pii: 19366.
51. Le, Q.M., Kiso, M., Someya, K., Sakai, Y.T., Nguyen, T.H., Nguyen, K.H., et al. 2005. Avian flu: isolation of drug-resistant H5N1 virus. Nature, 437(7062): 1108. doi:10.1038/4371108a. PMID:16228009.
52. Le, M.T., Wertheim, H.F., Nguyen, H.D., Taylor, W., Hoang, P.V., Vuong, C.D., et al. 2008. Influenza A H5N1 clade 2.3.4 virus with a different antiviral susceptibility profile replaced clade 1 virus in humans in northern Vietnam. PLoS One, 3(10): e3339.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0003339. PMID:18836532.
53. Lee, S.M., Cheung, C.Y., Nicholls, J.M., Hui, K.P., Leung, C.Y., Uiprasertkul, M., et al. 2008. Hyperinduction of cyclooxygen-ase-2-mediated proinflammatory cascade: a mechanism for the pathogenesis of avian influenza H5N1 infection. J. Infect. Dis. 198(4): 525-535. doi:10.1086/590499. PMID:18613795.
54. Li, K.S., Guan, Y., Wang, J., Smith, G.J., Xu, K.M., Duan, L., et al. 2004. Genesis of a highly pathogenic and potentially pandemic H5N1 influenza virus in eastern Asia. Nature, 430(6996): 209-213. doi:10.1038/nature02746. PMID:15241415.
55. Li, Z., Jiang, Y., Jiao, P., Wang, A., Zhao, F., Tian, G., et al. 2006. The NS1 gene contributes to the virulence of H5N1 avian influenza viruses. J. Virol. 80(22): 11115-11123. doi:10.1128/JVI.00993-06. PMID:16971424.
56. Lipatov, A.S., Andreansky, S., Webby, R.J., Hulse, D.J., Rehg, J.E., Krauss, S., et al. 2005. Pathogenesis of Hong Kong H5N1 influenza virus NS gene reassortants in mice: the role of cytokines and Band T-cell responses. J. Gen. Virol. 86(Pt 4): 1121-1130. doi:10.1099/vir.0.80663-0. PMID:15784906.
57. Liu, J., Xiao, H., Lei, F., Zhu, Q., Qin, K., Zhang, X.W., et al. 2005. Highly pathogenic H5N1 influenza virus infection in migratory birds. Science, 309(5738): 1206. doi:10.1126/science.1115273. PMID:16000410.
58. Ma, W., Lager, K.M., Vincent, A.L., Janke, B.H., Gramer, M.R., and Richt, J.A. 2009. The role of swine in the generation of novel influenza viruses. Zoonoses Public Health, 56(6-7): 326-337.doi:10.1111/j.1863-2378.2008.01217.x. PMID:19486316.
59. Maines, T.R., Chen, L.M., Matsuoka, Y., Chen, H., Rowe, T., Ortin, J., et al. 2006. Lack of transmission of H5N1 avian-human reassortant influenza viruses in a ferret model. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 103(32): 12121-12126.doi:10.1073/pnas.0605134103. PMID:16880383.
60. Maines, T.R., Jayaraman, A., Belser, J.A., Wadford, D.A., Pappas, C., Zeng, H., et al. 2009. Transmission and pathogenesis of swine-origin 2009 A(H1N1) influenza viruses in ferrets and mice. Science, 325(5939): 484-487. PMID:19574347.
61. Matrosovich, M., Stech, J., and Klenk, H.D. 2009. Influenza receptors, polymerase and host range. Rev. Sci. Tech. 28(1): 203-217. PMID:19618627.
62. Mauad, T., Hajjar, L.A., Callegari, G.D., da Silva, L.F., Schout, D., Galas, F.R., et al. 2010. Lung pathology in fatal novel human influenza A (H1N1) infection. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 181(1): 72-79. doi:10.1164/rccm.200909-1420OC. PMID:19875682.
63. Mok, C.K., Lee, D.C., Cheung, C.Y., Peiris, M., and Lau, A.S. 2007. Differential onset of apoptosis in influenza A virus H5N1-and H1N1-infected human blood macrophages. J. Gen. Virol. 88(Pt 4): 1275-1280. doi:10.1099/vir.0.82423-0. PMID:17374772.
64. Mok, K.P., Wong, C.H., Cheung, C.Y., Chan, M.C., Lee, S.M., Nicholls, J.M., et al. 2009. Viral genetic determinants of H5N1 influenza viruses that contribute to cytokine dysregulation. J. Infect. Dis. 200(7): 1104-1112. doi:10.1086/605606. PMID:19694514.
65. Munster, V.J., de Wit, E., van den Brand, J.M., Herfst, S., Schrauwen, E.J., Bestebroer, T.M., et al. 2009. Pathogenesis and transmission of swine-origin 2009 A(H1N1) influenza virus in ferrets. Science, 325(5939): 481-483. PMID:19574348.
66. Neumann, G., and Kawaoka, Y. 2006. Host range restriction and pathogenicity in the context of influenza pandemic. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 12(6): 881-886. PMID:16707041.
67. Neumann, G., Noda, T., and Kawaoka, Y. 2009. Emergence and pandemic potential of swine-origin H1N1 influenza virus. Nature, 459(7249): 931-939. doi:10.1038/nature08157. PMID:19525932.
68. Nicholls, J.M., Chan, M.C., Chan, W.Y., Wong, H.K., Cheung, C.Y., Kwong, D.L., et al. 2007. Tropism of avian influenza A (H5N1) in the upper and lower respiratory tract. Nat. Med. 13(2): 147-149. doi:10.1038/nm1529. PMID:17206149.
69. Nishimura, H., Itamura, S., Iwasaki, T., Kurata, T., and Tashiro, M. 2000. Characterization of human influenza A (H5N1) virus infection in mice: neuro-, pneumo and adipotropic infection. J. Gen. Virol. 81(Pt 10): 2503-2510. PMID:10993940.
70. Obenauer, J.C., Denson, J., Mehta, P.K., Su, X., Mukatira, S., Finkelstein, D.B., et al. 2006. Large-scale sequence analysis of avian influenza isolates. Science, 311(5767): 1576-1580. doi:10.1126/science.1121586. PMID:16439620.
71. Olsen, S.J., Ungchusak, K., Sovann, L., Uyeki, T.M., Dowell, S.F., Cox, N.J., et al. 2005. Family clustering of avian influenza A (H5N1). Emerg. Infect. Dis. 11(11): 1799-1801. PMID:16422010.
72. Peiris, J.S., Yu, W.C., Leung, C.W., Cheung, C.Y., Ng, W.F., Nicholls, J.M., et al. 2004. Re-emergence of fatal human influenza A subtype H5N1 disease. Lancet, 363(9409): 617-619. doi:10. 1016/S0140-6736(04)15595-5. PMID:14987888.
73. Perez-Padilla, R.,de la Rosa-Zamboni, D., Ponce de Leon, S., Hernandez, M., Quiñones-Falconi, F., Bautista, E., et al. 2009. Pneumonia and respiratory failure from swine-origin influenza A (H1N1) in Mexico. N. Engl. J. Med. 361(7): 680-689. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa0904252. PMID:19564631.
74. Perrone, L.A., Plowden, J.K., García-Sastre, A., Katz, J.M., Tumpey, T.M., and Baric, R.S. 2008. H5N1 and 1918 pandemic influenza virus infection results in early and excessive infiltration of macrophages and neutrophils in the lungs of mice. PLoS Pathog. 4(8): e1000115. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1000115. PMID:18670648.
75. Rello, J., Rodríguez, A., Ibañez, P., Socias, L., Cebrian, J., Marques, A., et al. 2009. Intensive care adult patients with severe respiratory failure caused by Influenza A (H1N1)v in Spain. Crit. Care, 13(5): R148. doi:10.1186/cc8044. PMID:19747383.
76. Rimmelzwaan, G.F., Kuiken, T., van Amerongen, G., Bestebroer, T.M., Fouchier, R.A., and Osterhaus, A.D. 2001. Pathogenesis of influenza A (H5N1) virus infection in a primate model. J. Virol. 75(14): 6687-6691.doi:10.1128/JVI.75.14.6687-6691.2001. PMID:11413336.
77. Salomon, R., Franks, J., Govorkova, E.A., Ilyushina, N.A., Yen, H.L., Hulse-Post, D.J., et al. 2006. The polymerase complex genes contribute to the high virulence of the human H5N1 influenza virus isolate A/Vietnam/1203/04. J. Exp. Med. 203(3): 689-697. doi:10.1084/jem.20051938. PMID:16533883.
78. Salomon, R., Hoffmann, E., and Webster, R.G. 2007. Inhibition of the cytokine response does not protect against lethal H5N1 influenza infection. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104(30): 12479-12481. doi:10.1073/pnas.0705289104. PMID:17640882.
79. Scholtissek, C. 1985. Stability of infectious influenza A viruses to treatment at low pH and heating. Arch. Virol. 85(1-2): 1-11. doi:10.1007/BF01317001. PMID:4015405.
80. Seo, S.H., Hoffmann, E., and Webster, R.G. 2002. Lethal H5N1 influenza viruses escape host anti-viral cytokine responses. Nat. Med. 8(9): 950-954. doi:10.1038/nm757. PMID:12195436.
81. Shinya, K., Ebina, M., Yamada, S., Ono, M., Kasai, N., and Kawaoka, Y. 2006. Avian flu: influenza virus receptors in the human airway. Nature, 440(7083): 435-436. doi:10.1038/440435a. PMID:16554799.
82. Shortridge, K.F., Zhou, N.N., Guan, Y., Gao, P., Ito, T., Kawaoka, Y., et al. 1998. Characterization of avian H5N1 influenza viruses from poultry in Hong Kong. Virology, 252(2): 331-342. doi:10.1006/viro.1998.9488. PMID:9878612.
83. Skehel, J.J., and Wiley, D.C. 2000. Receptor binding and membrane fusion in virus entry: the influenza hemagglutinin. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 69(1): 531-569.doi:10.1146/annurev.biochem.69.1.531. PMID:10966468.
84. Smith, G.J., Naipospos, T.S., Nguyen, T.D., de Jong, M.D., Vijaykrishna, D., Usman, T.B., et al. 2006. Evolution and adaptation of H5N1 influenza virus in avian and human hosts in Indonesia and Vietnam. Virology, 350(2): 258-268.doi:10.1016/j.virol.2006.03.048. PMID:16713612.
85. Smith, G.J., Vijaykrishna, D., Bahl, J., Lycett, S.J., Worobey, M., Pybus, O.G., et al. 2009. Origins and evolutionary genomics of the 2009 swine-origin H1N1 influenza A epidemic. Nature, 459(7250): 1122-1125.doi:10.1038/nature08182. PMID:19516283.
86. Soto-Abraham, M. V., Soriano-Rosas, J., Díaz-Quiñónez, A., Silva-Pereyra, J., Vazquez-Hernandez, P., Torres-López, O., et al. 2009. Pathological changes associated with the 2009 H1N1 virus. N. Engl. J. Med. 361(20): 2001-2003.doi:10.1056/NEJMc0907171. PMID:19907053.
87. Steel, J., Lowen, A.C., Mubareka, S., Palese, P., and Baric, R.S. 2009. Transmission of influenza virus in a mammalian host is increased by PB2 amino acids 627K or 627E/701N. PLoS Pathog. 5(1): e1000252.doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1000252. PMID:19119420.
88. Steinhauer, D.A. 1999. Role of hemagglutinin cleavage for the pathogenicity of influenza virus. Virology, 258(1): 1-20.doi:10. 1006/viro.1999.9716. PMID:10329563.
89. Steinhauer, D.A., and Skehel, J.J. 2002. Genetics of influenza viruses. Annu. Rev. Genet. 36(1): 305-332.doi:10.1146/annurev.genet.36.052402.152757. PMID:12429695.
90. Szretter, K.J., Gangappa, S., Lu, X., Smith, C., Shieh, W.J., Zaki, S.R., et al. 2007. Role of host cytokine responses in the pathogenesis of avian H5N1 influenza viruses in mice. J. Virol. 81(6): 2736-2744. doi:10.1128/JVI.02336-06. PMID:17182684.
91. Taubenberger, J.K., and Morens, D.M. 2008. The pathology of influenza virus infections. Annu. Rev. Pathol. 3(1): 499-522.doi:10. 1146/annurev.pathmechdis.3.121806.154316. PMID:18039138.
92. Taubenberger, J.K., Reid, A.H., Lourens, R.M., Wang, R., Jin, G., and Fanning, T.G. 2005. Characterization of the 1918 influenza virus polymerase genes. Nature, 437(7060): 889-893. doi:10.1038/nature04230. PMID:16208372.
93. Thitithanyanont, A., Engering, A., Ekchariyawat, P., Wiboon-ut, S., Limsalakpetch, A., Yongvanitchit, K., et al. 2007. High susceptibility of human dendritic cells to avian influenza H5N1 virus infection and protection by IFN-alpha and TLR ligands. J. Immunol. 179(8): 5220-5227. PMID:17911607.
94. Thompson, C.I., Barclay, W.S., Zambon, M.C., and Pickles, R.J. 2006. Infection of human airway epithelium by human and avian strains of influenza a virus. J. Virol. 80(16): 8060-8068. doi:10.1128/JVI.00384-06. PMID:16873262.
95. To, K.F., Chan, P.K., Chan, K.F., Lee, W.K., Lam, W.Y., Wong, K.F., et al. 2001. Pathology of fatal human infection associated with avian influenza A H5N1 virus. J. Med. Virol. 63(3): 242-246. doi:10.1002/1096-9071(200103)63:3<242::AID-JMV1007>3.0.CO;2-N. PMID:11170064.
96. Uiprasertkul, M., Puthavathana, P., Sangsiriwut, K., Pooruk, P., Srisook, K., Peiris, M., et al. 2005. Influenza A H5N1 replication sites in humans. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 11(7): 1036-1041. PMID: 16022777.
97. Uiprasertkul, M., Kitphati, R., Puthavathana, P., Kriwong, R., Kongchanagul, A., Ungchusak, K., et al. 2007. Apoptosis and pathogenesis of avian influenza A (H5N1) virus in humans. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 13(5): 708-712. PMID:17553248.
98. Van Hoeven, N., Pappas, C., Belser, J.A., Maines, T.R., Zeng, H., García-Sastre, A., et al. 2009. Human HA and polymerase subunit PB2 proteins confer transmission of an avian influenza virus through the air. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 106(9): 3366-3371. doi:10.1073/pnas.0813172106. PMID:19211790.
99. van Riel, D., Munster, V.J., de Wit, E., Rimmelzwaan, G.F., Fouchier, R.A., Osterhaus, A.D., and Kuiken, T. 2006. H5N1 virus attachment to lower respiratory tract. Science, 312(5772): 399.doi:10.1126/science.1125548. PMID:16556800.
100. Vijaykrishna, D., Bahl, J., Riley, S., Duan, L., Zhang, J.X., Chen, H., et al. 2008. Evolutionary dynamics and emergence of panzootic H5N1 influenza viruses. PLoS Pathog. 4(9): e1000161. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1000161. PMID:18818732.
101. Wang, M., Fu, C.X., and Zheng, B.J. 2009. Antibodies against H5 and H9 avian influenza among poultry workers in China. N. Engl. J. Med. 360(24): 2583-2584. doi:10.1056/NEJMc0900358. PMID:19516044.
102. WHO. 2007. World Health Organization. Clinical management of human infection with avian influenza A (H5N1) virus. Accessed 30 November 2008. Available from www.who.int/csr/disease/avian_influenza/guidelines/ClinicalManagement07.pdf
103. WHO. 2009a. World Health Organization. Pandemic (H1N1) 2009 update 64. Accessed 5 September 2009. Available from www. who.int/csr/don/2009_09_04/en/index.html.
104. WHO. 2009b. World Health Organization. Cumulative number of confirmed human cases of avian influenza A/(H5N1) reported to WHO. Accessed 4 September 2009. Available from www. who.int/csr/disease/avian_influenza/country/ cases_table_2009_08_31/en/index.html.
105. WHO. 2009c. World Health Organization. Pandemic (H1N1) 2009 update 62 (revised 21 August 2009). Accessed 31 August 2009. Available from www.who.int/csr/don/2009_08_21/en/index.html.
106. WHO. 2009d. World Health Organization. Guidelines for pharmacological management of pandemic (H1N1) 2009 influenza and other influenza viruses. Accessed 29 August 2009. Available from www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/swineflu/ h1n1_use_antivirals_20090820/en/index.html.
107. Xu, X., Subbarao, Cox, N.J., and Guo, Y. 1999. Genetic characterization of the pathogenic influenza A/Goose/Guangdong/1/96 (H5N1) virus: similarity of its hemagglutinin gene to those of H5N1 viruses from the 1997 outbreaks in Hong Kong. Virology, 261(1): 15-19. doi:10.1006/viro.1999.9820. PMID:10484749.
108. Xu, T., Qiao, J., Zhao, L., Wang, G., He, G., Li, K., et al. 2006. Acute respiratory distress syndrome induced by avian influenza A (H5N1) virus in mice. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 174(9): 1011-1017. doi:10.1164/rccm.200511-1751OC. PMID: 16917113.
109. Yamada, S., Suzuki, Y., Suzuki, T., Le, M.Q., Nidom, C.A., Sakai-Tagawa, Y., et al. 2006. Haemagglutinin mutations responsible for the binding of H5N1 influenza A viruses to human-type receptors. Nature, 444(7117): 378-382.doi:10.1038/nature05264. PMID:17108965.
110. Yao, L., Korteweg, C., Hsueh, W., and Gu, J. 2008. Avian influenza receptor expression in H5N1-infected and noninfected human tissues. FASEB J. 22(3): 733-740. doi:10.1096/fj.06-7880com. PMID:17925493.
111. Yen, H.L., Lipatov, A.S., Ilyushina, N.A., Govorkova, E.A., Franks, J., Yilmaz, N., et al. 2007. Inefficient transmission of H5N1 influenza viruses in a ferret contact model. J. Virol. 81(13): 6890-6898. doi:10.1128/JVI.00170-07. PMID:17459930.
112. Zamarin, D., García-Sastre, A., Xiao, X., Wang, R., and Palese, P. 2005. Influenza virus PB1-F2 protein induces cell death through mitochondrial ANT3 and VDAC1. PLoS Pathog. 1(1): e4. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.0010004. PMID:16201016.
113. Zamarin, D., Ortigoza, M.B., and Palese, P. 2006. Influenza A virus PB1-F2 protein contributes to viral pathogenesis in mice. J. Virol. 80(16): 7976-7983. doi:10.1128/JVI.00415-06. PMID: 16873254.
114. Zhang, Z., Zhang, J., Huang, K., Li, K.S., Yuen, K.Y., Guan, Y., et al. 2009. Systemic infection of avian influenza A virus H5N1 subtype in humans. Hum. Pathol. 40(5): 735-739. doi:10.1016/j. humpath.2008.08.015. PMID:19121843.
115. Zhao, Y., Lu, M., Lau, L.T., Lu, J., Gao, Z., Liu, J., et al. 2008. Neutrophils may be a vehicle for viral replication and dissemination in human H5N1 avian influenza. Clin. Infect. Dis. 47(12): 1575-1578. doi:10.1086/593196. PMID:18990065.
116. Zheng, B.J., Chan, K.W., Lin, Y.P., Zhao, G.Y., Chan, C., Zhang, H.J., et al. 2008. Delayed antiviral plus immunomodulator treatment still reduces mortality in mice infected by high inoculum of influenza A/H5N1 virus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 105(23): 8091-8096. doi:10.1073/pnas.0711942105. PMID: 18523003.
117. Zhou, J., Law, H.K., Cheung, C.Y., Ng, I.H., Peiris, J.S., and Lau, Y.L. 2006. Functional tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand production by avian influenza virus-infected macrophages. J. Infect. Dis. 193(7): 945-953. doi:10.1086/500954. PMID:16518756.
118. Zhou, H., Yu, Z., Hu, Y., Tu, J., Zou, W., Peng, Y., et al. 2009. The special neuraminidase stalk-motif responsible for increased virulence and pathogenesis of H5N1 influenza A virus. PLoS One, 4(7): e6277.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0006277. PMID:19609439.
119. Zimmer, S.M., and Burke, D.S. 2009. Historical perspective Emergence of influenza A (H1N1) viruses. N. Engl. J. Med. 361(3): 279-285. doi:10.1056/NEJMra0904322. PMID: 19564632.
120. Zitzow, L.A., Rowe, T., Morken, T., Shieh, W.J., Zaki, S., and Katz, J.M. 2002. Pathogenesis of avian influenza A (H5N1) viruses in ferrets. J. Virol. 76(9): 4420-4429. doi:10.1128/JVI. 76.9.4420-4429.2002. PMID:11932409.