Mechanisms for the Onset of the African Humid Period and Sahara Greening 14.5-11 ka BP

Journal of Climate

Volumn 23, Issue 10, 2010, Pages 2612-2633

  Timm, Oliver ^a   Köhler, Peter ^b   Timmermann, Axel ^a   Menviel, Laurie ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF HAWAII   (United States)

^b ALFRED WEGENER INSTITUTE FOR POLAR AND MARINE RESEARCH   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ABRUPT TRANSITION; CARBON STORAGE; DEGLACIATIONS; EFFECT OF CO; HOLOCENES; HUMID PERIODS; ICE SHEET; LAST GLACIAL; MODEL RESULTS; MODELING RESULTS; MONSOON SYSTEM; NORTH AFRICA; ORBITAL FORCING; RADIATIVE FORCINGS; REMOTE FORCING; SIGNIFICANT IMPACTS; TEMPORAL EVOLUTION; VEGETATION HISTORY; VEGETATION MODEL;

ATMOSPHERIC THERMODYNAMICS; CLIMATE CONTROL; CLIMATE MODELS; COMPUTER SIMULATION; GLACIAL GEOLOGY; GLACIERS; HIERARCHICAL SYSTEMS; SOLAR RADIATION; VEGETATION;

EXPERIMENTS;

CARBON SEQUESTRATION; CLIMATE FEEDBACK; CLIMATE FORCING; GLACIAL-INTERGLACIAL CYCLE; HUMID ENVIRONMENT; ICE SHEET; LAST DEGLACIATION; MONSOON; ORBITAL FORCING; PALEOCLIMATE; PROXY CLIMATE RECORD; TEMPORAL EVOLUTION; VEGETATION; VEGETATION DYNAMICS;

NORTH AFRICA;

EID: 77954375586     PISSN: 08948755     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1175/2010JCLI3217.1     Document Type: Article

References (109)

1. Adkins, J., P. deMenocal, and G. Eshel, 2006: The "African humid period" and the record of marine upwelling from excess 230Th in Ocean Drilling Program Hole 658C. Paleoceanography, 21, PA4203, doi:10.1029/2005PA001200.
2. Bader, J., and M. Latif, 2003: The impact of decadal-scale Indian Ocean sea surface temperature anomalies on Sahelian rainfall and the North Atlantic Oscillation. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, 2169, doi:10.1029/2003GL018426.
3. Bard, E., B. Hamelin, and R. G. Fairbanks, 1990: U/Th ages obtained by mass spectrometry in corals from Barbados: Sea level during the past 130,000 years. Nature, 346, 456-458, doi:10.1038/346456a0.
4. Berger, A. L., 1978: Long-term variations of daily insolation and Quaternary climatic changes. J. Atmos. Sci., 35, 2362-2367.
5. Braconnot, P., S. Joussaume, O. Marti, and N. de Noblet, 1999: Synergistic feedbacks from ocean and vegetation on the African monsoon response to mid-Holocene insolation. Geophys. Res. Lett., 26, 2481-2484.
6. Braconnot, P., S., and Coauthors, 2007: Results of PMIP2 coupled simulations of the mid-Holocene and Last Glacial Maximum-Part 2: Feedbacks with emphasis on the location of the ITCZ and midand high latitudes heat budget. Climate Past, 3, 279-296.
7. Braconnot, P., S., C. Marzin, L. Grégoire, E. Mosquet, and O. Marti, 2008: Monsoon response to changes in Earth's orbital parameters: Comparisons between simulations of the Eemian and of the Holocene. Climate Past, 4, 281-294.
8. Broström, A., M. Coe, S. P. Harrison, R. Gallimore, J. E. Kutzbach, J. Foley, I. C. Prentice, and P. Behling, 1998: Land surface feedbacks and palaeomonsoons in northern Africa. Geophys. Res. Lett., 25, 3615-3618.
9. Brovkin, V., M. Claussen, V. Petoukhov, and A. Ganopolski, 1998: On the stability of the atmosphere-vegetation system in the Sahara/Sahel region. J. Geophys. Res., 103 (D24), 31 613-31 624.
10. Chakraborty, A., R. S. Nanjundiah, and J. Srinivasan, 2002: Role of Asian and African orography in Indian summer monsoon. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, 1989, doi:10.1029/2002GL015522.
11. Chang, P., and Coauthors, 2008: Oceanic link between abrupt changes in the North Atlantic Ocean and the African monsoon. Nature Geosci., 1, 444-448, doi:10.1038/ngeo218.
12. Charney, J. G., 1975: Dynamics of deserts and drought in Sahel. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 101, 193-202.
13. Claussen, M., 1997: Modeling bio-geophysical feedback in the African and Indian monsoon region. Climate Dyn., 13, 247-257.
14. Claussen, M., and V. Gayler, 1997: The greening of the Sahara during the mid-Holocene: Results of an interactive atmosphere-biome model. Global Ecol. Biogeogr. Lett., 6, 369-377.
15. Claussen, M., C. Kubatzki, V. Brovkin, A. Ganopolski, P. Hoelzmann, and H.-J. Pachur, 1999: Simulation of an abrupt change in Saharan vegetation in the mid-Holocene. Geophys. Res. Lett., 26, 2037-2040.
16. Cole, J. M., P. B. deMenocal, S. L. Goldstein, S. R. Hemming, F. E. Grousset, T. I. Eglinton, and T. Wagner, 2008: An oceanic perspective on the African Humid Period. Eos, Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, 89, (Fall Meeting Suppl.), Abstract PP23B-1474.
17. deMenocal, P., 1995: Plio-Pleistocene African climate. Science, 270, 53-59, doi:10.1126/science.270.5233.53.
18. deMenocal, P., 2008: Palaeoclimate: Africa on the edge. Nature Geosci., 1, 650-651, doi:10.1038/ngeo323.
19. deMenocal, P., and D. Rind, 1993: Sensitivity of Asian and African climate to variations in seasonal insolation, glacial ice cover, sea surface temperature, and Asian orography. J. Geophys. Res., 98 (D4), 7265-7287.
20. deMenocal, P., W. F. Ruddiman, and E. M. Pokras, 1993: Influences of highand low-latitude processes on African terrestrial climate: Pleistocene eolian records from equatorial Atlantic Ocean Drilling Program site 663. Paleoceanography, 8, 209-242.
21. deMenocal, P., J. Ortiz, T. Guilderson, J. Adkins, M. Sarnthein, L. Baker, and M. Yarusinsky, 2000: Abrupt onset and termination of the African Humid Period: Rapid climate responses to gradual insolation forcing. Quat. Sci. Rev., 19, 347-361, doi:10.1016/S0277-3791(99)00081-5.
22. Deser, C., A. Capotondi, R. Saravanan, and A. S. Phillips, 2006: Tropical Pacific and Atlantic climate variability in CCSM3. J. Climate, 19, 2451-2481.
23. Fleitmann, D., S. J. Burns, M. Mudelsee, U. Neff, J. Kramers, A. Mangini, and A. Matter, 2003: Holocene forcing of the Indian monsoon recorded in a stalagmite from southern Oman. Science, 300, 1737-1739, doi:10.1126/science.1083130.
24. Fleitmann, D., and Coauthors, 2007: Holocene ITCZ and Indian monsoon dynamics recorded in stalagmites from Oman and Yemen (Socotra). Quat. Sci. Rev., 26, 170-188, doi:10.1016/.quascirev.2006.04.012.
25. 2 fertilization to the missing biospheric sink. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 9, 541-556.
26. Ganopolski, A., S. Rahmsdorf, V. Petoukhov, and M. Claussen, 1998: Simulation of modern and glacial climates with a coupled global model of intermediate complexity. Nature, 391, 351-356.
27. Garcin, Y., A. Vincens, D. Williamson, G. Buchet, and J. Guiot, 2007: Abrupt resumption of the African monsoon at the Younger Dryas-Holocene climatic transition. Quat. Sci. Rev., 26, 690-704, doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2006.10.014.
28. Gasse, F., 2000: Hydrological changes in the African tropics since the Last Glacial Maximum. Quat. Sci. Rev., 19, 189-211, doi:10.1016/S0277-3791(99)00061-X.
29. Gasse, F, and E. van Campo, 1994: Abrupt postglacial climate events in west Asia and North-Africa monsoon domains. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 126, 435-456.
30. Gent, P. R., and J. C. McWilliams, 1990: Isopycnal mixing in ocean circulation models. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 20, 150-155.
31. Giannini, A., R. Saravanan, and P. Chang, 2003: Oceanic forcing of Sahel rainfall on interannual to interdecadal time scales. Science, 302, 1027-1030, doi:10.1126/science.1089357.
32. Giannini, A., R, M. Biasutti, and M. M. Verstraete, 2008: A climate modelbased review of drought in the Sahel: Desertification, the re-greening and climate change. Global Planet. Change, 64, 119-128, doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2008.05.004.
33. Gill, A. E., 1980: Some simple solutions for heat-induced tropical circulation. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 106, 447-462.
34. 2. Nature, 417, 279-282, doi:10.1038/417279a.
35. Goosse, H., and T. Fichefet, 1999: Importance of ice-ocean interactions for the global ocean circulation: A model study. J. Geophys. Res., 104 (C10), 23 337-23 355.
36. Goosse, H, E. Deleersnijder, T. Fichefet, and M. H. England, 1999: Sensitivity of a global coupled ocean-sea ice model to the parameterization of vertical mixing. J. Geophys. Res., 104 (C6), 13 681-13 695.
37. Hewitt, C. D., C. A. Senior, and J. F. B. Mitchell, 2001: The impact of dynamic sea-ice on the climatology and climate sensitivity of a GCM: A study of past, present, and future climates. Climate Dyn., 17, 655-668, doi:10.1007/s003820000140.
38. 2 trapped in ice at Taylor Dome, Antarctica. Nature, 398, 121-126, doi:10.1038/18158.
39. Jolly, D., S. P. Harrison, B. Damnati, and R. Bonnefille, 1998: Simulated climate and biomes of Africa during the late Quaternary: Comparison with pollen and lake status data. Quat. Sci. Rev., 17, 629-657, doi:10.1016/S0277-3791(98)00015-8.
40. Joos, F., S. Gerber, I. C. Prentice, B. L. Otto-Bliesner, and P. J. Valdes, 2004: Transient simulations of Holocenic atmospheric carbon dioxide and terrestrial carbon since the last glacial maximum. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 18, GB2002, doi:10.1029/2003GB002156.
41. Joussaume, S., and Coauthors, 1999: Monsoon changes for 6000 years ago: Results of 18 simulations from the Paleoclimate Modeling Intercomparison Project (PMIP). Geophys. Res. Lett., 26, 859-862.
42. Justino, F., A. Timmermann, U. Merkel, and W. R. Peltier, 2006: An initial intercomparison of atmospheric and oceanic climatology for the ICE-5G and ICE-4G models of LGM paleotopography. J. Climate, 19, 3-14.
43. Kaplan, J. O., I. C. Prencite, W. Knorr, and P. J. Valdes, 2002: Modeling the dynamics of terrestrial carbon storage since the Last Glacial Maximum. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, 2074, doi:10.1029/2001GL013366.
44. Kaplan, J, and Coauthors, 2003: Climate change and Arctic ecosystems: 2. Modeling, paleodata-model comparisons, and future projections. J. Geophys. Res., 108, 8171, doi:10.1029/2002JD002559.
45. Kelly, M. J., R. L. Edwards, H. Cheng, D. Yuan, Y. Cai, M. Zhang, Y. Lin, and Z. An, 2006: High resolution characterization of the Asian monsoon between 146,000 and 99,000 years BP from Dongge Cave, China, and global correlation of events surrounding Termination II. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 236, 20-38.
46. Kleidon, A., K. Fraedrich, and C. Low, 2007: Multiple steady-states in the terrestrial atmosphere-biosphere. Biogeosciences, 4, 707-714.
47. Köhler, P., and H. Fischer, 2004: Simulating changes in the terrestrial biosphere during the last glacial/interglacial transition. Global Planet. Change, 43, 33-55, doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2004.02.005.
48. 2 in response to a collapse of the North Atlantic thermohaline circulation. Climate Dyn., 25, 689-708, doi:10.1007/s00382-005-0058-8.
49. Kröpelin, S., and Coauthors, 2008: Climate-driven ecosystem succession in the Sahara: The past 6000 years. Science, 320, 765- 768, doi:10.1126/science.1154913.
50. Kuper, R., and S. Kröpelin, 2006: Climate-controlled Holocene occupation in the Sahara: Motor of Africa's evolution. Science, 313, 803-807, doi:10.1126/science.1130989.
51. Kutzbach, J. E., and Z. Liu, 1997: Response of the African monsoon to orbital forcing and ocean feedbacks in the middle Holocene. Science, 278, 440-443, doi:10.1126/science.278.5337.440.
52. Kutzbach, J. E, G. Bonan, J. Foley, and S. P. Harrison, 1996: Vegetation and soil feedbacks on the response of the African monsoon to orbital forcing in the early to middle Holocene. Nature, 384, 623-626, doi:10.1038/384623a0.
53. Kutzbach, J. E, X. Liu, Z. Liu, and G. Chen, 2008: Simulation of the evolutionary response of global summer monsoons to orbital forcing over the past 280,000 years. Climate Dyn., 30, 567-579, doi:10.1007/s00382-007-0308-z.
54. Leemans, R., and W. P. Cramer, 1991: The IIASA climate database for land areas on a grid with 0.5° resolution. International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis Res. Rep. Vol. RR-9118, Laxenburg, Austria, 62 pp.
55. Levis, S., G. B. Bonan, and C. Bonfils, 2004: Soil feedback drives the mid-Holocene North African monsoon northward in fully coupled CCSM2 simulations with a dynamic vegetation model. Climate Dyn., 23, 791-802, doi:10.1007/s00382-004-0477-y.
56. Liu, Z., Y. Wang, R. Gallimore, M. Notaro, and I. C. Prentice, 2006: On the cause of abrupt vegetation collapse in North Africa during the Holocene: Climate variability vs. vegetation feedback. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L22709, doi:10.1029/2006GL028062.
57. Liu, Z., and Coauthors, 2007: Simulating the transient evolution and abrupt change of northern Africa atmosphere-ocean-terrestrial ecosystem in the Holocene. Quat. Sci. Rev., 26, 1818-1837, doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2007.03.002.
58. Liu, Z., and Coauthors, 2009: Transient simulation of last deglaciation with a new mechanism for Bølling-Allerød warming. Science, 325, 310-314, doi:10.1126/science.1171041.
59. Lorenz, S. J., and G. Lohmann, 2004: Acceleration technique for Milankovitch type forcing in a coupled atmosphere-ocean circulation model: Method and application for the Holocene. Climate Dyn., 23, 727-743, doi:10.1007/s00382-004-0469-y.
60. Lunt, D. J., M. S. Williamson, P. J. Valdes, and T. M. Lenton, 2006: Comparing transient, accelerated, and equilibrium simulations of the last 30 000 years with the GENIE-1 model. Climate Past, 2, 221-235.
61. Masson, V., P. Braconnot, J. Jouzel, N. de Noblet, R. Cheddadi, and O. Marchal, 2000: Simulation of intense monsoons under glacial conditions. Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 1747-1750.
62. McManus, J. F., R. Francois, J.-M. Gherardi, L. D. Keigwin, and S. Brown-Leger, 2004: Collapse and rapid resumption of Atlantic meridional circulation linked to deglacial climate changes. Nature, 428, 834-837, doi:10.1038/nature02494.
63. Menviel, L., A. Timmermann, A. Mouchet, and O. Timm, 2008: Meridional reorganizations of marine and terrestrial productivity during Heinrich events. Paleoceanography, 23, PA1203, doi:10.1029/2007PA001445.
64. 2 concentrations over the last glacial termination. Science, 291, 112-114.
65. Morrill, C., J. T. Overpeck, and J. E. Cole, 2003: A synthesis of abrupt changes in the Asian summer monsoon since the last deglaciation. Holocene, 13, 465-476, doi:10.1191/0959683603hl639ft.
66. Mulitza, S., and Coauthors, 2008: Sahel megadroughts triggered by glacial slowdowns of Atlantic meridional overturning. Paleoceanography, 23, PA4206, doi:10.1029/2008PA001637.
67. New, M., M. Hulme, and P. Jones, 2000: Representing twentiethcentury space-time climate variability: Development of 1901-95 monthly grids of terrestrial surface climate. J. Climate, 13, 2217-2238.
68. Notaro, M., Y. Wang, Z. Liu, R. Gallimore, and S. Levis, 2008: Combined statistical and dynamical assessment of simulated vegetation-rainfall during the mid-Holocene. Global Change Biol., 14, 347-368, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2007.01495.x.
69. Obata, A., 2007: Climate-carbon cycle model response to freshwater discharge into the North Atlantic. J. Climate, 20, 5962-5976.
70. Okumura, Y., and S. Xie, 2004: Interaction of the Atlantic equatorial cold tongue and the African monsoon. J. Climate, 17, 3589-3602.
71. Opsteegh, J. D., R. J. Haarsma, F. M. Selten, and A. Kattenberg, 1998: ECBILT: A dynamic alternative to mixed boundary conditions in ocean models. Tellus, 50A, 348-367, doi:10.1034/j.1600-0870.1998.t01-1-00007.x.
72. Overpeck, J., D. Anderson, S. Trumbore, and W. Prell, 1996: The southwest Indian monsoon over the last 18000 years. Climate Dyn., 12, 213-225, doi:10.1007/BF00211619.
73. Patricola, C. M., and K. H. Cook, 2008: Atmosphere/vegetation feedbacks: A mechanism for abrupt climate change over northern Africa. J. Geophys. Res., 113, D18102, doi:10.1029/2007JD009608.
74. Peck, J. A., R. R. Green, T. Shanahan, J. W. King, J. T. Overpeck, and C. A. Scholz, 2004: A magnetic mineral record of Late Quaternary tropical climate variability from Lake Bosumtwi, Ghana. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 215, 37-57, doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2004.08.003.
75. Peltier, W. R., 1994: Ice age paleotopography. Science, 265, 195-201, doi:10.1126/science.265.5169.195.
76. Peltier, W. R, 2005: On the hemispheric origins of meltwater pulse 1A. Quat. Sci. Rev., 24, 1655-1671, doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2004.06.023.
77. Peyron, O., D. Jolly, P. Braconnot, R. Bonnefille, J. Guiot, D. Wirrmann, and F. Chalie, 2006: Quantitative reconstructions of annual rainfall in Africa 6000 years ago: Model-data comparison. J. Geophys. Res., 111, D24110, doi:10.1029/2006JD007396.
78. Pope, V. D., M. L. Gallani, P. R. Rowntree, and R. A. Stratton, 2000: The impact of new physical parametrizations in the Hadley Centre climate model: HadAM3. Climate Dyn., 16, 123-146, doi:10.1007/s003820050009.
79. Prentice, I. C., and D. Jolly, 2000: Mid-Holocene and glacialmaximum vegetation geography of the northern continents and Africa. J. Biogeogr., 27, 507-519, doi:10.1046/j.1365-2699.2000.00425.x.
80. Renssen, H., H. Goosse, and T. Fichefet, 2002: Modeling the effect of freshwater pulses on the early Holocene climate: The influence of high-frequency climate variability. Paleoceanography, 17, 1020, doi:10.1029/2001PA000649.
81. Renssen, H., V. Brovkin, T. Fichefet, and H. Goosse, 2003: Holocene climate instability during the termination of the African Humid Period. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, 1061, doi:10.1029/2002GL016155.
82. Renssen, H., H. Goosse, T. Fichefet, V. Brovkin, E. Driesschaert, and F. Wolk, 2005: Simulating the Holocene climate evolution at northern high latitudes using a coupled atmosphere-sea ice-ocean-vegetation model. Climate Dyn., 24, 23-43, doi:10.1007/s00382-004-0485-y.
83. Renssen, H., V. Brovkin, T. Fichefet, and H. Goosse, 2006a: Simulation of the Holocene climate evolution in northern Africa: The termination of the African Humid Period. Quat. Int., 150, 95-102, doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2005.01.001.
84. Renssen, H., E. Driesschaert, M. F. Loutre, and T. Fichefet, 2006b: On the importance of initial conditions for simulations of the mid-Holocene climate. Climatr Past., 2, 91-97.
85. Richter, I., and S.-P. Xie, 2008: On the origin of equatorial Atlantic biases in coupled general circulation models. Climate Dyn., 31, 587-598, doi:10.1007/s00382-008-0364-z.
86. Rohling, E., R. Marsh, N. Wells, M. Siddall, and N. Edwards, 2004: Similar meltwater contributions to glacial sea level changes from Antarctic and northern ice sheets. Nature, 430, 1016-1021.
87. Severinghaus, J. P., and E. J. Brook, 1999: Abrupt climate change at the end of the last glacial period inferred from trapped air in polar ice. Science, 286, 930-934, doi:10.1126/science.286.5441.930.
88. Shanahan, T. M., and Coauthors, 2006: Paleoclimatic variations in West Africa from a record of late Pleistocene and Holocene lake level stands of Lake Bosumtwi, Ghana. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 242, 287-302, doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.06.007.
89. Sirocko, F., D. Garbe-Schönberg, A. McIntyre, and B. Molfino, 1996: Teleconnections between the subtropical monsoons and high-latitude climates during the last deglaciation. Science, 272, 526-529, doi:10.1126/science.272.5261.526.
90. Sitch, S., and Coauthors, 2003: Evaluation of ecosystem dynamics, plant geography and terrestrial carbon cycling in the LPJ dynamic global vegetation model. Global Change Biol., 9, 161-185.
91. Smith, H. J., H. Fischer, M. Wahlen, D. Mastroianni, and B. Deck, 1999: Dual modes of the carbon cycle since the Last Glacial Maximum. Nature, 400, 248-250, doi:10.1038/22291.
92. Stouffer, R. J., and Coauthors, 2006: Investigating the causes of the response of the thermohaline circulation to past and future climate changes. J. Climate, 19, 1365-1387.
93. Strassmann, K., F. Joos, and G. Fischer, 2008: Simulating effects of land use changes on carbon fluxes: Past contributions to atmospheric CO2 increases and future commitments due to losses of terrestrial sink capacity. Tellus, 60B, 583-603, doi:10.1111/j.1600-0889.2008.00340.x.
94. Texier, D., and Coauthors, 1997: Quantifying the role of biosphere-atmosphere feedbacks in climate change: Coupled model simulations for 6000 years BP and comparison with palaeodata for northern Eurasia and northern Africa. Climate Dyn., 13, 865-881, doi:10.1007/s003820050202.
95. Timm, O., and A. Timmermann, 2007: Simulation of the last 21 000 years using accelerated transient boundary conditions. J. Climate, 20, 4377-4401.
96. Timmermann, A., S. J. Lorenz, S.-I. An, A. Clement, and S.-P. Xie, 2007: The effect of orbital forcing on the mean climate and variability of the tropical Pacific. J. Climate, 20, 4147-4159.
97. 2 and orbital forcing in driving Southern Hemispheric temperature variations during the last 21 000 years. J. Climate, 22, 1626-1640.
98. Tjallingii, R., M. Claussen, J.-B. W. Stuut, J. Fohlmeister, A. Jahn, T. Bickert, F. Lamy, and U. Röhl, 2008: Coherent highand low-latitude control of the northwest African hydrological balance. Nature Geosci., 1, 670-675, doi:10.1038/ngeo289.
99. Uppala, S. M., and Coauthors, 2005: The ERA-40 re-analysis. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 131, 2961-3012.
100. Wang,Y.,M.Notaro,Z.Liu,R.Gallimore,S.Levis,and J. E. Kutzbach, 2008: Detecting vegetation-precipitation feedbacks in mid-Holocene North Africa from two climate models. Climate Past, 4, 59-67.
101. Wang, Y. J., H. Cheng, R. L. Edwards, Z. S. An, J. Y. Wu, C. C. Shen, and J. A. Dorale, 2001: A high-resolution absolutedated Late Pleistocene monsoon record from Hulu cave, China. Science, 294, 2345-2348, doi:10.1126/science. 1064618.
102. Weldeab, S., D. Lea, R. Schneider, and N. Andersen, 2007: 155,000 years of West African monsoon and ocean thermal evolution. Science, 316, 1303-1307, doi:10.1126/science.1140461.
103. Xie, P., and P. A. Arkin, 1997: Global precipitation: A 17-year monthly analysis based on gauge observations, satellite estimates, and numerical model outputs. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 78, 2539-2558.
104. Xue, Y., and J. Shukla, 1996: The influence of land surface properties on Sahel climate. Part II: Afforestation. J. Climate, 9, 3260-3275.
105. Xue, Y., and Xue, Y., 1998: Model simulation of the influence of global SST anomalies on Sahel rainfall. Mon. Wea. Rev., 126, 2782-2792.
106. Yuan, D. X., and Coauthors, 2004: Timing, duration, and transitions of the last interglacial Asian monsoon. Science, 304, 575-578, doi:10.1126/science.1091220.
107. Zeng, N., J. D. Neelin, K. M. Lau, and C. J. Tucker, 1999: Enhancement of interdecadal climate variability in the Sahel by vegetation interaction. Science, 286, 1537-1540.
108. Zeng, N, K. Hales, and D. Neelin, 2002: Nonlinear dynamics in a coupled vegetation-atmosphere system and implications for desertforest gradient. J. Climate, 15, 3474-3487.
109. Zhang, R., and T. L. Delworth, 2006: Impact of Atlantic multidecadal oscillations on India/Sahel rainfall and Atlantic hurricanes. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L17712, doi:10.1029/2006GL026267.