Imaging renal cell carcinoma with ultrasonography, CT and MRI

Nature Reviews Urology

Volumn 7, Issue 6, 2010, Pages 311-325

  Leveridge, Michael J ^a   Bostrom, Peter J ^a   Koulouris, George ^b   Finelli, Antonio ^a   Lawrentschuk, Nathan ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

^b The Melbourne Clinic   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACETYLCYSTEINE; ALPHA INTERFERON; ANTIOXIDANT; CONTRAST MEDIUM; ECHO CONTRAST MEDIUM; FLUORODEOXYGLUCOSE F 18; GADOLINIUM; IODINATED CONTRAST MEDIUM; MONOCLONAL ANTIBODY; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING AGENT; PROTEIN TYROSINE KINASE INHIBITOR; SORAFENIB; SUNITINIB; VASODILATOR AGENT;

ANGIOGENESIS; CANCER CHEMOTHERAPY; CANCER DIAGNOSIS; CANCER STAGING; CLINICAL PRACTICE; CLINICAL PROTOCOL; COMPUTER ASSISTED EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; CONTRAST ENHANCEMENT; CONTRAST INDUCED NEPHROPATHY; DIAGNOSTIC ACCURACY; DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; DRUG CONTRAINDICATION; DRUG FATALITY; DRUG HYPERSENSITIVITY; DRUG SAFETY; ECHOGRAPHY; HEMOFILTRATION; HUMAN; HYDRATION; IMAGE RECONSTRUCTION; KIDNEY CARCINOMA; KIDNEY CYST; KIDNEY FUNCTION; MICROBUBBLE; MULTIDETECTOR COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY; MULTIPLE CYCLE TREATMENT; NEPHRECTOMY; NEPHROTOXICITY; NONHUMAN; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; OVERALL SURVIVAL; PATIENT MONITORING; POSTOPERATIVE PERIOD; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGRESSION FREE SURVIVAL; RADIATION DOSE; RADIATION EXPOSURE; RADIOFREQUENCY ABLATION; RADIOLOGIST; REVIEW; SECOND CANCER; SPIRAL COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; TREATMENT RESPONSE; TUMOR VOLUME; ULTRASOUND; UNSPECIFIED SIDE EFFECT;

CARCINOMA, RENAL CELL; HUMANS; KIDNEY NEOPLASMS; MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; TOMOGRAPHY, X-RAY COMPUTED;

EID: 77953621629     PISSN: 17594812     EISSN: 17594820     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1038/nrurol.2010.63     Document Type: Review

References (112)

1. Horner, M. J. et al. SEER Cancer Statistics Review, 1975-2006, National Cancer Institute. Bethesda, MD, [online] http://seer.cancer.gov/ csr/1975-2006 (2009).
2. Gill, I. S., Aron, M., Gervais, D. A. & Jewett, M. A. Clinical practice. Small renal mass. N. Engl. J. Med. 362, 624-634 (2010).
3. Volpe, A. et al. The natural history of incidentally detected small renal masses. Cancer 100, 738-745 (2004).
4. Cooperberg, M. R. et al. Decreasing size at diagnosis of stage 1 renal cell carcinoma: analysis from the National Cancer Data Base, 1993 to 2004. J. Urol. 179, 2131-2135 (2008).
5. Frank, I. et al. Solid renal tumors: an analysis of pathological features related to tumor size. J. Urol. 170, 2217-2220 (2003).
6. Bach, A. M. & Zhang, J. Contemporary radiologic imaging of renal cortical tumors. Urol. Clin. North Am. 35, 593-604 (2008).
7. Lane, B. R. et al. Renal mass biopsy-a renaissance? J. Urol. 179, 20-27 (2008).
8. Silver, D. A., Morash, C., Brenner, P., Campbell, S. & Russo, P. Pathologic findings at the time of nephrectomy for renal mass. Ann. Surg. Oncol. 4, 570-574 (1997).
9. Schlomer, B., Figenshau, R. S., Yan, Y. & Bhayani, S. B. How does the radiographic size of a renal mass compare with the pathologic size? Urology 68, 292-295 (2006).
10. Thompson, R. H. et al. Tumor size is associated with malignant potential in renal cell carcinoma cases. J. Urol. 181, 2033-2036 (2009).
11. Campbell, S. C. et al. Guideline for management of the clinical T1 renal mass. J. Urol. 182, 1271-1279 (2009).
12. Ljungberg, B. et al. Guidelines on Renal Cell Carcinoma (European Association of Urology, 2009).
13. Bluth, E. I. et al. Indeterminate renal masses. American College of Radiology. ACR Appropriateness Criteria. Radiology 215 (Suppl.), 747-752 (2000).
14. Choyke, P. L. et al. Renal cell carcinoma staging. American College of Radiology. ACR Appropriateness Criteria. Radiology 215 (Suppl.), 721-725 (2000).
15. Kopka, L. et al. Dual-phase helical CT of the kidney: value of the corticomedullary and nephrographic phase for evaluation of renal lesions and preoperative staging of renal cell carcinoma. AJR Am. J. Roentgenol. 169, 1573-1578 (1997).
16. Yuh, B. I. & Cohan, R. H. Different phases of renal enhancement: role in detecting and characterizing renal masses during helical CT. AJR Am. J. Roentgenol. 173, 747-755 (1999).
17. Ng, C. S. et al. Renal cell carcinoma: diagnosis, staging, and surveillance. AJR Am. J. Roentgenol. 191, 1220-1232 (2008).
18. Silverman, S. G., Leyendecker, J. R. & Amis, E. S. Jr. What is the current role of CT urography and MR urography in the evaluation of the urinary tract? Radiology 250, 309-323 (2009).
19. Bosniak, M. A. The current radiological approach to renal cysts. Radiology 158, 1-10 (1986).
20. Israel, G. M. & Bosniak, M. A. How I do it: evaluating renal masses. Radiology 236, 441-450 (2005).
21. Siegel, C. L., Fisher, A. J. & Bennett, H. F. Interobserver variability in determining enhancement of renal masses on helical CT. AJR Am. J. Roentgenol. 172, 1207-1212 (1999).
22. Israel, G. M. & Bosniak, M. A. Pitfalls in renal mass evaluation and how to avoid them. Radiographics 28, 1325-1338 (2008).
23. Wang, Z. J. et al. Renal cyst pseudoenhancement at multidetector CT: what are the effects of number of detectors and peak tube voltage? Radiology 248, 910-916 (2008).
24. Bosniak, M. A. Angiomyolipoma (hamartoma) of the kidney: a preoperative diagnosis is possible in virtually every case. Urol. Radiol. 3, 135-142 (1981).
25. Simpfendorfer, C. et al. Angiomyolipoma with minimal fat on MDCT: can counts of negativeattenuation pixels aid diagnosis? AJR Am. J. Roentgenol. 192, 438-443 (2009).
26. Kim, J. K., Park, S. Y., Shon, J. H. & Cho, K. S. Angiomyolipoma with minimal fat: differentiation from renal cell carcinoma at biphasic helical CT. Radiology 230, 677-684 (2004).
27. Choudhary, S., Rajesh, A., Mayer, N. J., Mulcahy, K. A. & Haroon, A. Renal oncocytoma: CT features cannot reliably distinguish oncocytoma from other renal neoplasms. Clin. Radiol. 64, 517-522 (2009).
28. Prasad, S. R., Surabhi, V. R., Menias, C. O., Raut, A. A. & Chintapalli, K. N. Benign renal neoplasms in adults: cross-sectional imaging findings. AJR Am. J. Roentgenol. 190, 158-164 (2008).
29. Kim, J. I., Cho, J. Y., Moon, K. C., Lee, H. J. & Kim, S. H. Segmental enhancement inversion at biphasic multidetector CT: characteristic finding of small renal oncocytoma. Radiology 252, 441-448 (2009).
30. Bastide, C., Rambeaud, J. J., Bach, A. M. & Russo, P. Metanephric adenoma of the kidney: clinical and radiological study of nine cases. BJU Int. 103, 1544-1548 (2009).
31. Sheir, K. Z., El-Azab, M., Mosbah, A., El-Baz, M. & Shaaban, A. A. Differentiation of renal cell carcinoma subtypes by multislice computerized tomography. J. Urol. 174, 451-455 (2005).
32. Zhang, J. et al. Solid renal cortical tumors: differentiation with CT. Radiology 244, 494-504 (2007).
33. Johnson, C. D., Dunnick, N. R., Cohan, R. H. & Illescas, F. F. Renal adenocarcinoma: CT staging of 100 tumors. AJR Am. J. Roentgenol. 148, 59-63 (1987).
34. Reznek, R. H. CT/MRI in staging renal cell carcinoma. Cancer Imaging 4, S25-S32 (2004).
35. Guzzo, T., Pierorazio, P., Schaeffer, E., Fishman, E. & Allaf, M. The accuracy of multidetector computerized tomography for evaluating tumor thrombus in patients with renal cell carcinoma. J. Urol. 181, 486-490 (2009).
36. Hallscheidt, P. et al. Preoperative staging of renal cell carcinoma with inferior vena cava thrombus using multidetector CT and MRI: prospective study with histopathological correlation. J. Comput. Assist. Tomogr. 29, 64-68 (2005).
37. Lawrentschuk, N., Gani, J., Riordan, R., Esler, S. & Bolton, D. M. Multidetector computed tomography vs magnetic resonance imaging for defining the upper limit of tumour thrombus in renal cell carcinoma: a study and review. BJU Int. 96, 291-295 (2005).
38. Robson, C. J., Churchill, B. M. & Anderson, W. The results of radical nephrectomy for renal cell carcinoma. J. Urol. 101, 297-301 (1969).
39. Tsui, K. H. et al. Is adrenalectomy a necessary component of radical nephrectomy? UCLA experience with 511 radical nephrectomies. J. Urol. 163, 437-441 (2000).
40. O'Malley, R. L., Godoy, G., Kanofsky, J. A. & Taneja, S. S. The necessity of adrenalectomy at the time of radical nephrectomy: a systematic review. J. Urol. 181, 2009-2017 (2009).
41. Studer, U. E. et al. Enlargement of regional lymph nodes in renal cell carcinoma is often not due to metastases. J. Urol. 144, 243-245 (1990).
42. Blom, J. H. et al. Radical nephrectomy with and without lymph-node dissection: final results of European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer (EORTC) randomized phase 3 trial 30881. Eur. Urol. 55, 28-34 (2009).
43. Fazel, R. et al. Exposure to low-dose ionizing radiation from medical imaging procedures. N. Engl. J. Med. 361, 849-857 (2009).
44. Hall, E. J. & Brenner, D. J. Cancer risks from diagnostic radiology. Br. J. Radiol. 81, 362-378 (2008).
45. Martin, D. R. et al. Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis versus contrast-induced nephropathy: risks and benefits of contrast-enhanced MR and CT in renally impaired patients. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 30, 1350-1356 (2009).
46. Goldenberg, I. & Matetzky, S. Nephropathy induced by contrast media: pathogenesis, risk factors and preventive strategies. CMAJ 172, 1461-1471 (2005).
47. Probert, J. L., Glew, D. & Gillatt, D. A. Magnetic resonance imaging in urology. BJU Int. 83, 201-214 (1999).
48. Tello, R. et al. MR imaging of renal masses interpreted on CT to be suspicious. AJR Am. J. Roentgenol. 174, 1017-1022 (2000).
49. Eilenberg, S., Brown, J., Lee, J., Heiken, J. & Mirowitz, S. Evaluation of renal masses with contrast-enhanced rapid acquisition spin echo MR imaging. Magn. Reson. Imaging 11, 7-16 (1993).
50. Silverman, S. G., Israel, G. M., Herts, B. R. & Richie, J. P. Management of the incidental renal mass. Radiology 249, 16-31 (2008).
51. Kim, S. et al. T1 hyperintense renal lesions: characterization with diffusion-weighted MR imaging versus contrast-enhanced MR imaging. Radiology 251, 796-807 (2009).
52. Ho, V., Allen, S., Hood, M. & Choyke, P. Renal masses: quantitative assessment of enhancement with dynamic MR imaging. Radiology 224, 695-700 (2002).
53. Hecht, E. et al. Renal masses: quantitative analysis of enhancement with signal intensity measurements versus qualitative analysis of enhancement with image subtraction for diagnosing malignancy at MR imaging. Radiology 232, 373-378 (2004).
54. Kim, J. et al. Renal angiomyolipoma with minimal fat: differentiation from other neoplasms at double-echo chemical shift FLASH MR imaging. Radiology 239, 174-180 (2006).
55. Garin, J. et al. CT and MRI in fat-containing papillary renal cell carcinoma. Br. J. Radiol. 80, e193-e195 (2007).
56. Roy, C. et al. Renal cell carcinoma with a fatty component mimicking angiomyolipoma on CT. Br. J. Radiol. 71, 977-979 (1998).
57. Prasad, S., Surabhi, V., Menias, C., Raut, A. & Chintapalli, K. Benign renal neoplasms in adults: cross-sectional imaging findings. AJR Am. J. Roentgenol. 190, 158-164 (2008).
58. Prince, M. R., Zhang, H. L., Roditi, G. H., Leiner, T. & Kucharczyk, W. Risk factors for NSF: a literature review. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 30, 1298-1308 (2009).
59. Agarwal, R. et al. Gadolinium-based contrast agents and nephrogenic systemic fibrosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 24, 856-863 (2009).
60. Mayr, M., Burkhalter, F. & Bongartz, G. Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis: clinical spectrum of disease. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 30, 1289-1297 (2009).
61. Sun, M. et al. Renal cell carcinoma: dynamic contrast-enhanced MR imaging for differentiation of tumor subtypes-correlation with pathologic findings. Radiology 250, 793-802 (2009).
62. Oliva, M. R. et al. Renal cell carcinoma: t1 and t2 signal intensity characteristics of papillary and clear cell types correlated with pathology. AJR Am. J. Roentgenol. 192, 1524-1530 (2009).
63. Shinmoto, H. et al. Small renal cell carcinoma: MRI with pathologic correlation. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 8, 690-694 (1998).
64. Pedrosa, I. et al. MR classification of renal masses with pathologic correlation. Eur. Radiol. 18, 365-375 (2008).
65. Roy, C. S. et al. Significance of the pseudocapsule on MRI of renal neoplasms and its potential application for local staging: a retrospective study. AJR Am. J. Roentgenol. 184, 113-120 (2005).
66. Oto, A., Herts, B. R., Remer, E. M. & Novick, A. C. Inferior vena cava tumor thrombus in renal cell carcinoma: staging by MR imaging and impact on surgical treatment. AJR Am. J. Roentgenol. 171, 1619-1624 (1998).
67. Kallman, D. A. et al. Renal vein and inferior vena cava tumor thrombus in renal cell carcinoma: CT, US, MRI and venacavography. J. Comput. Assist. Tomogr. 16, 240-247 (1992).
68. Laissy, J. et al. Renal carcinoma: diagnosis of venous invasion with Gd-enhanced MR venography. Eur. Radiol. 10, 1138-1143 (2000).
69. Aslam Sohaib, S. et al. Assessment of tumor invasion of the vena caval wall in renal cell carcinoma cases by magnetic resonance imaging. J. Urol. 167, 1271-1275 (2002).
70. Jamis-Dow, C. A. et al. Small (< or = 3-cm) renal masses: detection with CT versus US and pathologic correlation. Radiology 198, 785-788 (1996).
71. Bos, S. D. & Mensink, H. J. Can duplex Doppler ultrasound replace computerized tomography in staging patients with renal cell carcinoma? Scand. J. Urol. Nephrol. 32, 87-91 (1998).
72. Frohmuller, H. G., Grups, J. W. & Heller, V. Comparative value of ultrasonography, computerized tomography, angiography and excretory urography in the staging of renal cell carcinoma. J. Urol. 138, 482-484 (1987).
73. Setola, S. V., Catalano, O., Sandomenico, F. & Siani, A. Contrast-enhanced sonography of the kidney. Abdom. Imaging 32, 21-28 (2007).
74. Wilson, S. R., Greenbaum, L. D. & Goldberg, B. B. Contrast-enhanced ultrasound: what is the evidence and what are the obstacles? AJR Am. J. Roentgenol. 193, 55-60 (2009).
75. Tamai, H. et al. Contrast-enhanced ultrasonography in the diagnosis of solid renal tumors. J. Ultrasound Med. 24, 1635-1640 (2005).
76. Fan, L., Lianfang, D., Jinfang, X., Yijin, S. & Ying, W. Diagnostic efficacy of contrastenhanced ultrasonography in solid renal parenchymal lesions with maximum diameters of 5 cm. J. Ultrasound Med. 27, 875-885 (2008).
77. Park, B. K. et al. Assessment of cystic renal masses based on Bosniak classification: comparison of CT and contrast-enhanced US. Eur. J. Radiol. 61, 310-314 (2007).
78. Piscaglia, F. & Bolondi, L. The safety of Sonovue in abdominal applications: retrospective analysis of 23188 investigations. Ultrasound Med. Biol. 32, 1369-1375 (2006).
79. ter Haar, G. Safety and bio-effects of ultrasound contrast agents. Med. Biol. Eng. Comput. 47, 893-900 (2009).
80. Carrim, Z. I. & Murchison, J. T. The prevalence of simple renal and hepatic cysts detected by spiral computed tomography. Clin. Radiol. 58, 626-629 (2003).
81. Israel, G. M. & Bosniak, M. A. An update of the Bosniak renal cyst classification system. Urology 66, 484-488 (2005).
82. Song, C. et al. Differential diagnosis of complex cystic renal mass using multiphase computerized tomography. J. Urol. 181, 2446-2450 (2009).
83. Bach, A. & Zhang, J. Contemporary radiologic imaging of renal cortical tumors. Urol. Clin. North Am. 35, 593-604 (2008).
84. Israel, G. & Bosniak, M. MR imaging of cystic renal masses. Magn. Reson. Imaging Clin. N. Am. 12, 403-412 (2004).
85. Israel, G., Hindman, N. & Bosniak, M. Evaluation of cystic renal masses: comparison of CT and MR imaging by using the Bosniak classification system. Radiology 231, 365-371 (2004).
86. Sandrasegaran, K. et al. Usefulness of diffusion-weighted imaging in the evaluation of renal masses. AJR Am. J. Roentgenol. 194, 438-445 (2010).
87. Crispen, P. L. et al. Natural history, growth kinetics, and outcomes of untreated clinically localized renal tumors under active surveillance. Cancer 115, 2844-2852 (2009).
88. Sowery, R. D. & Siemens, D. R. Growth characteristics of renal cortical tumors in patients managed by watchful waiting. Can. J. Urol. 11, 2407-2410 (2004).
89. The American College of Radiology ACR Appropriateness CriteriaR. Clinical Condition: Follow up of Renal Cell Carcinoma [online], http://www.acr.org/ SecondaryMainMenu Categories/quality-safety/app-criteria/pdf/ ExpertPanelonUrologicImaging/FollowUp ofRenalCellCarcinomaDoc5.aspx (2009).
90. Gervais, D. A., McGovern, F. J., Arellano, R. S., McDougal, W. S. & Mueller, P. R. Radiofrequency ablation of renal cell carcinoma: part 1, Indications, results, and role in patient management over a 6-year period and ablation of 100 tumors. AJR Am. J. Roentgenol. 185, 64-71 (2005).
91. Wile, G. E., Leyendecker, J. R., Krehbiel, K. A., Dyer, R. B. & Zagoria, R. J. CT and MR imaging after imaging-guided thermal ablation of renal neoplasms. Radiographics 27, 325-339 (2007).
92. Davenport, M. S. et al. MRI and CT characteristics of successfully ablated renal masses: imaging surveillance after radiofrequency ablation. AJR Am. J. Roentgenol. 192, 1571-1578 (2009).
93. Kawamoto, S., Permpongkosol, S., Bluemke, D. A., Fishman, E. K. & Solomon, S. B. Sequential changes after radiofrequency ablation and cryoablation of renal neoplasms: role of CT and MR imaging. Radiographics 27, 343-355 (2007).
94. Matsumoto, E. D. et al. The radiographic evolution of radio frequency ablated renal tumors. J. Urol. 172, 45-48 (2004).
95. Bensalah, K., Zeltser, I., Tuncel, A., Cadeddu, J. & Lotan, Y. Evaluation of costs and morbidity associated with laparoscopic radiofrequency ablation and laparoscopic partial nephrectomy for treating small renal tumours. BJU Int. 101, 467-471 (2008).
96. Clark, T. W. et al. Reporting standards for percutaneous thermal ablation of renal cell carcinoma. J. Vasc. Interv. Radiol. 20, S409-S416 (2009).
97. Kassouf, W. et al. Follow-up guidelines after radical or partial nephrectomy for localized and locally advanced renal cell carcinoma. Can. Urol. Assoc. J. 3, 73-76 (2009).
98. National Comprehensive Cancer Network. NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology- Kidney Cancer [online], http://www.nccn.org/ professionals/ physician-gls/f-guidelines.asp (2009).
99. Ljungberg, B. et al. Renal cell carcinoma guideline. Eur. Urol. 51, 1502-1510 (2007).
100. Escudier, B. et al. Sorafenib in advanced clearcell renal-cell carcinoma. N. Engl. J. Med. 356, 125-134 (2007).
101. Hudes, G. et al. Temsirolimus, interferon alfa, or both for advanced renal-cell carcinoma. N. Engl. J. Med. 356, 2271-2281 (2007).
102. Motzer, R. J. et al. Overall survival and updated results for sunitinib compared with interferon alfa in patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma. J. Clin. Oncol. 27, 3584-3590 (2009).
103. Eisenhauer, E. A. et al. New response evaluation criteria in solid tumours: revised RECIST guideline (version 1.1). Eur. J. Cancer 45, 228-247 (2009).
104. Maksimovic, O. et al. Evaluation of response in malignant tumors treated with the multitargeted tyrosine kinase inhibitor sorafenib: a multitechnique imaging assessment. AJR Am. J. Roentgenol. 194, 5-14 (2010).
105. Smith, A. D., Lieber, M. L. & Shah, S. N. Assessing tumor response and detecting recurrence in metastatic renal cell carcinoma on targeted therapy: importance of size and attenuation on contrast-enhanced CT. AJR Am. J. Roentgenol. 194, 157-165 (2010).
106. US National Institutes of Health. A Study of Neoadjuvant Sutent for Patients With Renal Cell Carcinoma-University of Toronto. http:// clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00480935 (2010).
107. O'Connor, J. P., Jackson, A., Parker, G. J. & Jayson, G. C. DCE-MRI biomarkers in the clinical evaluation of antiangiogenic and vascular disrupting agents. Br. J. Cancer 96, 189-195 (2007).
108. Lamuraglia, M. et al. Clinical relevance of contrast-enhanced ultrasound in monitoring antiangiogenic therapy of cancer: current status and perspectives. Crit. Rev. Oncol. Hematol. 73, 202-212 (2010).
109. Lamuraglia, M. et al. To predict progression-free survival and overall survival in metastatic renal cancer treated with sorafenib: pilot study using dynamic contrast-enhanced Doppler ultrasound. Eur. J. Cancer 42, 2472-2479 (2006).
110. Willmann, J. K. et al. US imaging of tumor angiogenesis with microbubbles targeted to vascular endothelial growth factor receptor type 2 in mice. Radiology 246, 508-518 (2008).
111. Lawrentschuk, N., Davis, I. D., Bolton, D. M. & Scott, A. M. Functional imaging of renal cell carcinoma. Nat. Rev. Urol. doi:10.1038/ nrurol.2010.40.
112. Warren, K. S. & McFarlane, J. The Bosniak classification of renal cystic masses. BJU Int. 95, 939-942 (2005).