Influence of Alcohol on Mortality in Traumatic Brain Injury

Journal of the American College of Surgeons

Volumn 210, Issue 6, 2010, Pages 997-1007

  Opreanu, Razvan C ^a   Kuhn, Donald ^b,c   Basson, Marc D ^a,b  

^a MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b VETERANS AFFAIRS MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^c WAYNE STATE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALCOHOL; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; N METHYL DEXTRO ASPARTIC ACID RECEPTOR; N METHYL DEXTRO ASPARTIC ACID RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT;

ADRENERGIC SYSTEM; AGE DISTRIBUTION; ALCOHOL ABUSE; ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION; ALCOHOL INTOXICATION; ALCOHOLISM; CATATONIA; CLINICAL RESEARCH; CLINICAL STUDY; COGNITION; DRUG EFFICACY; EXCITATORY POSTSYNAPTIC POTENTIAL; GLASGOW COMA SCALE; HALLUCINATION; HELMET; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; NEUROPROTECTION; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TEST; NONHUMAN; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SEX DIFFERENCE; SYMPATHETIC FUNCTION; TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY;

ALCOHOLIC INTOXICATION; ANIMALS; BRAIN INJURIES; DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL; ETHANOL; HUMANS; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 77952539579     PISSN: 10727515     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jamcollsurg.2010.01.036     Document Type: Review

References (126)

1. Langlois J.A., Rutland-Brown W., and Thomas K.E. Traumatic brain injury in the United States: emergency department visits, hospitalizations, and deaths (2004), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Atlanta, GA
2. Thurman D.J., Alverson C., Dunn K.A., et al. Traumatic brain injury in the United States: a public health perspective. J Head Trauma Rehabil 14 (1999) 602-615
3. Max W., MacKenzie E.J., and Rice D.P. Head injuries: costs and consequences. J Head Trauma Rehabil 6 (1991) 76-91
4. Finkelstein E., Corso P.S., and Miller T.R. The incidence and economic burden of injuries in the United States (2006), Oxford University Press, New York xiii
5. Moore D.W., Ashman T.A., Cantor J.B., et al. Does gender influence cognitive outcome after traumatic brain injury?. Neuropsychol Rehabil (2009) 1-15
6. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. The economic impact of motor vehicle crashes (2000), US Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), Washington, DC. http://www.dot.gov/safety.html Accessed November 7, 2009
7. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. The economic impact of motor vehicle crashes 2000 (2000), US Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, DC. http://www.nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/Pubs/ Accessed November 7, 2009
8. US Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Division. Traffic safety facts 1996: alcohol (1997), National Center for Statistics and Analysis, Research and Development, Washington, DC
9. Stewart R.M., Myers J.G., Dent D.L., et al. Seven hundred fifty-three consecutive deaths in a level I trauma center: the argument for injury prevention. J Trauma 54 (2003) 66-70 discussion 70-71
10. Fabbri A., Marchesini G., Morselli-Labate A.M., et al. Positive blood alcohol concentration and road accidents. A prospective study in an Italian emergency department. Emerg Med J 19 (2002) 210-214
11. Pories S.E., Gamelli R.L., Vacek P., et al. Intoxication and injury. J Trauma 32 (1992) 60-64
12. Waller P.F., Stewart J.R., Hansen A.R., et al. The potentiating effects of alcohol on driver injury. JAMA 256 (1986) 1461-1466
13. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Traffic safety facts 2006 (2007), National Center for Statistics and Analysis, Research and Development, Washington, DC
14. Sauaia A., Moore F.A., Moore E.E., et al. Epidemiology of trauma deaths: a reassessment. J Trauma 38 (1995) 185-193
15. Corrigan J.D. Substance abuse as a mediating factor in outcome from traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 76 (1995) 302-309
16. Kolakowsky-Hayner S.A., Gourley III E.V., Kreutzer J.S., et al. Pre-injury substance abuse among persons with brain injury and persons with spinal cord injury. Brain Inj 13 (1999) 571-581
17. Salim A., Ley E.J., Cryer H.G., et al. Positive serum ethanol level and mortality in moderate to severe traumatic brain injury. Arch Surg 144 (2009) 865-871
18. Morales D.M., Marklund N., Lebold D., et al. Experimental models of traumatic brain injury: do we really need to build a better mousetrap?. Neuroscience 136 (2005) 971-989
19. Statler K.D., Jenkins L.W., Dixon C.E., et al. The simple model versus the super model: translating experimental traumatic brain injury research to the bedside. J Neurotrauma 18 (2001) 1195-1206
20. Farace E., and Alves W.M. Do women fare worse?. A metaanalysis of gender differences in outcome after traumatic brain injury. Neurosurg Focus 8 (2000) e6
21. Czosnyka M., Radolovich D., Balestreri M., et al. Gender-related differences in intracranial hypertension and outcome after traumatic brain injury. Acta Neurochir Suppl 102 (2008) 25-28
22. Wagner A.K., Kline A.E., Sokoloski J., et al. Intervention with environmental enrichment after experimental brain trauma enhances cognitive recovery in male but not female rats. Neurosci Lett 334 (2002) 165-168
23. Hukkelhoven C.W., Steyerberg E.W., Rampen A.J., et al. Patient age and outcome following severe traumatic brain injury: an analysis of 5600 patients. J Neurosurg 99 (2003) 666-673
24. Bosron W.F., Ehrig T., and Li T.K. Genetic factors in alcohol metabolism and alcoholism. Semin Liver Dis 13 (1993) 126-135
25. Jones A.W., and Jonsson K.A. Food-induced lowering of blood-ethanol profiles and increased rate of elimination immediately after a meal. J Forensic Sci 39 (1994) 1084-1093
26. Urbano-Marquez A., Estruch R., Fernandez-Sola J., et al. The greater risk of alcoholic cardiomyopathy and myopathy in women compared with men. JAMA 274 (1995) 149-154
27. Nixon S.J. Cognitive deficits in alcoholic women. Alcohol Health Res World 18 (1994) 228-232
28. Dash P.K., Moore A.N., Moody M.R., et al. Post-trauma administration of caffeine plus ethanol reduces contusion volume and improves working memory in rats. J Neurotrauma 21 (2004) 1573-1583
29. Janis L.S., Hoane M.R., Conde D., et al. Acute ethanol administration reduces the cognitive deficits associated with traumatic brain injury in rats. J Neurotrauma 15 (1998) 105-115
30. Kelly D.F., Lee S.M., Pinanong P.A., and Hovda D.A. Paradoxical effects of acute ethanolism in experimental brain injury. J Neurosurg 86 (1997) 876-882
31. Taylor A.N., Romeo H.E., Beylin A.V., et al. Alcohol consumption in traumatic brain injury: attenuation of TBI-induced hyperthermia and neurocognitive deficits. J Neurotrauma 19 (2002) 1597-1608
32. Tureci E., Dashti R., Tanriverdi T., et al. Acute ethanol intoxication in a model of traumatic brain injury: the protective role of moderate doses demonstrated by immunoreactivity of synaptophysin in hippocampal neurons. Neurol Res 26 (2004) 108-112
33. Gottesfeld Z., Moore A.N., and Dash P.K. Acute ethanol intake attenuates inflammatory cytokines after brain injury in rats: a possible role for corticosterone. J Neurotrauma 19 (2002) 317-326
34. Kelly D.F., Kozlowski D.A., Haddad E., et al. Ethanol reduces metabolic uncoupling following experimental head injury. J Neurotrauma 17 (2000) 261-272
35. Zink B.J., and Feustel P.J. Effects of ethanol on respiratory function in traumatic brain injury. J Neurosurg 82 (1995) 822-828
36. Zink B.J., Schultz C.H., Wang X., et al. Effects of ethanol on brain lactate in experimental traumatic brain injury with hemorrhagic shock. Brain Res 837 (1999) 1-7
37. Zink B.J., Walsh R.F., and Feustel P.J. Effects of ethanol in traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 10 (1993) 275-286
38. Katada R., Nishitani Y., Honmou O., et al. Prior ethanol injection promotes brain edema after traumatic brain injury: evidence for poor prognosis for intoxicated patients. J Neurotrauma 26 (2009) 2015-2025
39. Yamakami I., Vink R., Faden A.I., et al. Effects of acute ethanol intoxication on experimental brain injury in the rat: neurobehavioral and phosphorus-31 nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy studies. J Neurosurg 82 (1995) 813-821
40. Bondoli A., Barbi S., Camaioni D., et al. Plasma and cerebrospinal fluid free amino acid concentration in post-traumatic cerebral oedema in patients with shock. Resuscitation 9 (1981) 119-124
41. Faden A.I., Demediuk P., Panter S.S., and Vink R. The role of excitatory amino acids and NMDA receptors in traumatic brain injury. Science 244 (1989) 798-800
42. Katayama Y., Becker D.P., Tamura T., and Hovda D.A. Massive increases in extracellular potassium and the indiscriminate release of glutamate following concussive brain injury. J Neurosurg 73 (1990) 889-900
43. Nilsson P., Hillered L., Ponten U., and Ungerstedt U. Changes in cortical extracellular levels of energy-related metabolites and amino acids following concussive brain injury in rats. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 10 (1990) 631-637
44. Panter S.S., Yum S.W., and Faden A.I. Alteration in extracellular amino acids after traumatic spinal cord injury. Ann Neurol 27 (1990) 96-99
45. Garthwaite G., Hajos F., and Garthwaite J. Ionic requirements for neurotoxic effects of excitatory amino acid analogues in rat cerebellar slices. Neuroscience 18 (1986) 437-447
46. Choi D.W. Ionic dependence of glutamate neurotoxicity. J Neurosci 7 (1987) 369-379
47. Choi D.W. Glutamate neurotoxicity in cortical cell culture is calcium dependent. Neurosci Lett 58 (1985) 293-297
48. Rothman S.M. The neurotoxicity of excitatory amino acids is produced by passive chloride influx. J Neurosci 5 (1985) 1483-1489
49. Rothman S. Synaptic release of excitatory amino acid neurotransmitter mediates anoxic neuronal death. J Neurosci 4 (1984) 1884-1891
50. McIntosh T.K., Vink R., Soares H., et al. Effect of noncompetitive blockade of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors on the neurochemical sequelae of experimental brain injury. J Neurochem 55 (1990) 1170-1179
51. McIntosh T.K., Vink R., Soares H., et al. Effects of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor blocker MK-801 on neurologic function after experimental brain injury. J Neurotrauma 6 (1989) 247-259
52. Bernert H., and Turski L. Traumatic brain damage prevented by the non-N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonist 2,3-dihydroxy-6-nitro-7-sulfamoylbenzo[f] quinoxaline. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 93 (1996) 5235-5240
53. Dempsey R.J., Baskaya M.K., and Dogan A. Attenuation of brain edema, blood-brain barrier breakdown, and injury volume by ifenprodil, a polyamine-site N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonist, after experimental traumatic brain injury in rats. Neurosurgery 47 (2000) 399-404 discussion 404-396
54. Ikonomidou C., Qin Y., Labruyere J., et al. Prevention of trauma-induced neurodegeneration in infant rat brain. Pediatr Res 39 (1996) 1020-1027
55. Morris G.F., Bullock R., Marshall S.B., et al. Failure of the competitive N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonist Selfotel (CGS 19755) in the treatment of severe head injury: results of two phase III clinical trials. The Selfotel Investigators. J Neurosurg 91 (1999) 737-743
56. Yurkewicz L., Weaver J., Bullock M.R., and Marshall L.F. The effect of the selective NMDA receptor antagonist traxoprodil in the treatment of traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 22 (2005) 1428-1443
57. Merchant R.E., Bullock M.R., Carmack C.A., et al. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the safety, tolerability and pharmacokinetics of CP-101,606 in patients with a mild or moderate traumatic brain injury. Ann N Y Acad Sci 890 (1999) 42-50
58. Narayan R.K., Michel M.E., Ansell B., et al. Clinical trials in head injury. J Neurotrauma 19 (2002) 503-557
59. Lee J.M., Zipfel G.J., and Choi D.W. The changing landscape of ischaemic brain injury mechanisms. Nature 399 (1999) A7-A14
60. Arciniegas D.B. Designing clinical trials to improve neurobehavioral outcome after traumatic brain injury: from bench to bedside. Crit Care Med 37 (2009) 784-785
61. Ikonomidou C., and Turski L. Why did NMDA receptor antagonists fail clinical trials for stroke and traumatic brain injury?. Lancet Neurol 1 (2002) 383-386
62. Kemp J.A., and McKernan R.M. NMDA receptor pathways as drug targets. Nat Neurosci 5 Suppl (2002) 1039-1042
63. Hardingham G.E., Fukunaga Y., and Bading H. Extrasynaptic NMDARs oppose synaptic NMDARs by triggering CREB shut-off and cell death pathways. Nat Neurosci 5 (2002) 405-414
64. Biegon A., Fry P.A., Paden C.M., et al. Dynamic changes in N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors after closed head injury in mice: implications for treatment of neurological and cognitive deficits. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 101 (2004) 5117-5122
65. Benveniste H., Drejer J., Schousboe A., and Diemer N.H. Elevation of the extracellular concentrations of glutamate and aspartate in rat hippocampus during transient cerebral ischemia monitored by intracerebral microdialysis. J Neurochem 43 (1984) 1369-1374
66. Ikonomidou C., Stefovska V., and Turski L. Neuronal death enhanced by N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonists. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 97 (2000) 12885-12890
67. Young D., Lawlor P.A., Leone P., et al. Environmental enrichment inhibits spontaneous apoptosis, prevents seizures and is neuroprotective. Nat Med 5 (1999) 448-453
68. Calton J.L., Wilson W.A., and Moore S.D. Magnesium-dependent inhibition of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor-mediated synaptic transmission by ethanol. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 287 (1998) 1015-1019
69. Lovinger D.M., White G., and Weight F.F. Ethanol inhibits NMDA-activated ion current in hippocampal neurons. Science 243 (1989) 1721-1724
70. Morrisett R.A., Martin D., Oetting T.A., et al. Ethanol and magnesium ions inhibit N-methyl-D-aspartate-mediated synaptic potentials in an interactive manner. Neuropharmacology 30 (1991) 1173-1178
71. Weight F.F., Lovinger D.M., White G., and Peoples R.W. Alcohol and anesthetic actions on excitatory amino acid-activated ion channels. Ann N Y Acad Sci 625 (1991) 97-107
72. White G., Lovinger D.M., and Weight F.F. Ethanol inhibits NMDA-activated current but does not alter GABA-activated current in an isolated adult mammalian neuron. Brain Res 507 (1990) 332-336
73. Clifton G.L., Ziegler M.G., and Grossman R.G. Circulating catecholamines and sympathetic activity after head injury. Neurosurgery 8 (1981) 10-14
74. Hamill R.W., Woolf P.D., McDonald J.V., et al. Catecholamines predict outcome in traumatic brain injury. Ann Neurol 21 (1987) 438-443
75. Woolf P.D., Hamill R.W., Lee L.A., et al. The predictive value of catecholamines in assessing outcome in traumatic brain injury. J Neurosurg 66 (1987) 875-882
76. Woolf P.D., McDonald J.V., Feliciano D.V., et al. The catecholamine response to multisystem trauma. Arch Surg 127 (1992) 899-903
77. Mautes A.E., Muller M., Cortbus F., et al. Alterations of norepinephrine levels in plasma and CSF of patients after traumatic brain injury in relation to disruption of the blood-brain barrier. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 143 (2001) 51-57 discussion 57-58
78. Woolf P.D., Hamill R.W., Lee L.A., and McDonald J.V. Free and total catecholamines in critical illness. Am J Physiol 254 (1988) E287-E291
79. Ley E.J., Scehnet J., Park R., et al. The in vivo effect of propranolol on cerebral perfusion and hypoxia after traumatic brain injury. J Trauma 66 (2009) 154-159 discussion 159-161
80. Liu M.Y. Protective effects of propranolol on experimentally head-injured mouse brains. J Formos Med Assoc 94 (1995) 386-390
81. Riordan Jr. W.P., Cotton B.A., Norris P.R., et al. Beta-blocker exposure in patients with severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) and cardiac uncoupling. J Trauma 63 (2007) 503-510 discussion 510-501
82. Cotton B.A., Snodgrass K.B., Fleming S.B., et al. Beta-blocker exposure is associated with improved survival after severe traumatic brain injury. J Trauma 62 (2007) 26-33 discussion 33-25
83. Inaba K., Teixeira P.G., David J.S., et al. Beta-blockers in isolated blunt head injury. J Am Coll Surg 206 (2008) 432-438
84. Arbabi S., Campion E.M., Hemmila M.R., et al. Beta-blocker use is associated with improved outcomes in adult trauma patients. J Trauma 62 (2007) 56-61 discussion 61-62
85. Salim A., Hadjizacharia P., Brown C., et al. Significance of troponin elevation after severe traumatic brain injury. J Trauma 64 (2008) 46-52
86. Woolf P.D., Cox C., Kelly M., et al. Alcohol intoxication blunts sympatho-adrenal activation following brain injury. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 14 (1990) 205-209
87. Woolf P.D., Cox C., McDonald J.V., et al. Effects of intoxication on the catecholamine response to multisystem injury. J Trauma 31 (1991) 1271-1275 discussion 1275-1276
88. Luna G.K., Maier R.V., Sowder L., et al. The influence of ethanol intoxication on outcome of injured motorcyclists. J Trauma 24 (1984) 695-700
89. Plurad D., Demetriades D., Gruzinski G., et al. Motor vehicle crashes: the association of alcohol consumption with the type and severity of injuries and outcomes. J Emerg Med 38 (2010) 12-17
90. Blondell R.D., Looney S.W., Krieg C.L., and Spain D.A. A comparison of alcohol-positive and alcohol-negative trauma patients. J Stud Alcohol 63 (2002) 380-383
91. Ward R.E., Flynn T.C., Miller P.W., and Blaisdell W.F. Effects of ethanol ingestion on the severity and outcome of trauma. Am J Surg 144 (1982) 153-157
92. Huth J.F., Maier R.V., Simonowitz D.A., and Herman C.M. Effect of acute ethanolism on the hospital course and outcome of injured automobile drivers. J Trauma 23 (1983) 494-498
93. Jurkovich G.J., Rivara F.P., Gurney J.G., et al. The effect of acute alcohol intoxication and chronic alcohol abuse on outcome from trauma. JAMA 270 (1993) 51-56
94. Shih H.C., Hu S.C., Yang C.C., et al. Alcohol intoxication increases morbidity in drivers involved in motor vehicle accidents. Am J Emerg Med 21 (2003) 91-94
95. Thal E.R., Bost R.O., and Anderson R.J. Effects of alcohol and other drugs on traumatized patients. Arch Surg 120 (1985) 708-712
96. Jehle D., and Cottington E. Effect of alcohol consumption on outcome of pedestrian victims. Ann Emerg Med 17 (1988) 953-956
97. Alexander S., Kerr M.E., Yonas H., and Marion D.W. The effects of admission alcohol level on cerebral blood flow and outcomes after severe traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 21 (2004) 575-583
98. Tien H.C., Tremblay L.N., Rizoli S.B., et al. Association between alcohol and mortality in patients with severe traumatic head injury. Arch Surg 141 (2006) 1185-1191 discussion 1192
99. O'Phelan K., McArthur D.L., Chang C.W., et al. The impact of substance abuse on mortality in patients with severe traumatic brain injury. J Trauma 65 (2008) 674-677
100. Shandro J.R., Rivara F.P., Wang J., et al. Alcohol and risk of mortality in patients with traumatic brain injury. J Trauma 66 (2009) 1584-1590
101. Salim A., Teixeira P., Ley E.J., et al. Serum ethanol levels: predictor of survival after severe traumatic brain injury. J Trauma 67 (2009) 697-703
102. Jorge R.E., Starkstein S.E., Arndt S., et al. Alcohol misuse and mood disorders following traumatic brain injury. Arch Gen Psychiatry 62 (2005) 742-749
103. Bombardier C.H., and Thurber C.A. Blood alcohol level and early cognitive status after traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj 12 (1998) 725-734
104. Kelly M.P., Johnson C.T., Knoller N., et al. Substance abuse, traumatic brain injury and neuropsychological outcome. Brain Inj 11 (1997) 391-402
105. Tate P.S., Freed D.M., Bombardier C.H., et al. Traumatic brain injury: influence of blood alcohol level on post-acute cognitive function. Brain Inj 13 (1999) 767-784
106. Lange R.T., Iverson G.L., and Franzen M.D. Effects of day-of-injury alcohol intoxication on neuropsychological outcome in the acute recovery period following traumatic brain injury. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 23 (2008) 809-822
107. Roberts P.J., and Segal A.W. The digestion of bacterial macromolecules by phagocytic cells: the effect of mepacrine and ethanol. Immunology 62 (1987) 581-586
108. Nelson S., Bagby G.J., Bainton B.G., and Summer W.R. The effects of acute and chronic alcoholism on tumor necrosis factor and the inflammatory response. J Infect Dis 160 (1989) 422-429
109. Wagner F., Fink R., Hart R., et al. Ethanol inhibits interferon-gamma secretion by human peripheral lymphocytes. J Stud Alcohol 53 (1992) 277-280
110. Nelson S., Bagby G., Andresen J., et al. The effects of ethanol, tumor necrosis factor, and granulocyte colony-stimulating factor on lung antibacterial defenses. Adv Exp Med Biol 288 (1991) 245-253
111. Papoz L., Weill J., L'Hoste J., et al. Biological markers of alcohol intake among 4796 subjects injured in accidents. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 292 (1986) 1234-1237
112. Patel S., and O'Gorman P. Serum enzyme levels in alcoholism and drug dependency. J Clin Pathol 28 (1975) 414-417
113. Hibbard M.R., Uysal S., Kepler K., et al. Axis I psychopathology in individuals with traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil 13 (1998) 24-39
114. Corrigan J.D., Lamb-Hart G.L., and Rust E. A programme of intervention for substance abuse following traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj 9 (1995) 221-236
115. Bombardier C.H., Temkin N.R., Machamer J., and Dikmen S.S. The natural history of drinking and alcohol-related problems after traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 84 (2003) 185-191
116. Dikmen S.S., Machamer J.E., Donovan D.M., et al. Alcohol use before and after traumatic head injury. Ann Emerg Med 26 (1995) 167-176
117. Kreutzer J.S., Doherty K., Harris J., and Zasler N. Alcohol use among persons with traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil 5 (1990) 9-20
118. Kreutzer J.S., Witol A.D., and Marwitz J.H. Alcohol and drug use among young persons with traumatic brain injury. J Learn Disabil 29 (1996) 643-651
119. Horner M.D., Ferguson P.L., Selassie A.W., et al. Patterns of alcohol use 1 year after traumatic brain injury: a population-based, epidemiological study. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 11 (2005) 322-330
120. Bombardier C.H., Ehde D., and Kilmer J. Readiness to change alcohol drinking habits after traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 78 (1997) 592-596
121. Salcido R., and Costich J.F. Recurrent traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj 6 (1992) 293-298
122. Ronty H., Ahonen A., Tolonen U., et al. Cerebral trauma and alcohol abuse. Eur J Clin Invest 23 (1993) 182-187
123. Freedland E.S., and McMicken D.B. Alcohol-related seizures, part I: pathophysiology, differential diagnosis, and evaluation. J Emerg Med 11 (1993) 463-473
124. Freedland E.S., McMicken D.B., and D'Onofrio G. Alcohol and trauma. Emerg Med Clin North Am 11 (1993) 225-239
125. Dunlop T.W., Udvarhelyi G.B., Stedem A.F., et al. Comparison of patients with and without emotional/behavioral deterioration during the first year after traumatic brain injury. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 3 (1991) 150-156
126. Bales J.W., Wagner A.K., Kline A.E., and Dixon C.E. Persistent cognitive dysfunction after traumatic brain injury: a dopamine hypothesis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 33 (2009) 981-1003