Sensing and tactile artificial muscles from reactive materials

Sensors

Volumn 10, Issue 4, 2010, Pages 2638-2674

  Conzuelo, Laura Valero ^a,b   Arias Pardilla, Joaquín ^a   Cauich Rodríguez, Juan V ^b   Smit, Mascha Afra ^b   Otero, Toribio Fernández ^a  

^a TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF CARTAGENA   (Spain)

^b Materials Department   (Germany)

Author keywords

Actuators; Artificial muscles; Conducting polymers; Reactive materials; Sensing actuators; Sensors; Tactile muscles

Indexed keywords

AMBIENT CONDITIONS; ARTIFICIAL MUSCLE; DODECYLBENZENE SULFONIC ACID; ELECTROCHEMICAL ACTUATORS; ELECTROLYTE CONCENTRATION; EQUILIBRIUM POTENTIALS; PHYSICAL VARIABLES; REACTIVE MATERIALS;

ACTUATORS; CONDUCTING POLYMERS; OXIDATION; POLYPYRROLES; REACTION INTERMEDIATES; SENSORS; STRESSES;

MUSCLE;

BENZENESULFONIC ACID DERIVATIVE; DODECYLBENZENESULFONIC ACID; ELECTROLYTE; POLYMER; POLYPYRROLE; PYRROLE DERIVATIVE;

CHEMISTRY; GENETIC PROCEDURES; MECHANICAL STRESS; METHODOLOGY; MUSCLE; OXIDATION REDUCTION REACTION; REVIEW;

BENZENESULFONATES; BIOSENSING TECHNIQUES; ELECTROLYTES; MUSCLES; OXIDATION-REDUCTION; POLYMERS; PYRROLES; STRESS, MECHANICAL;

EID: 77951726175     PISSN: 14248220     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/s100402638     Document Type: Review

References (174)

1. Stryer, L.; Berg, J.M.; Tymoczko, J.L. Biochemistry, 4th ed.; W.H. Freeman & Company: New York, NY, USA, 1995.
2. Otero, T.F.; Rodriguez, J. Electrochemomechanical and electrochemopositioning devices: artifcial muscles. In Intrinsically Conducting Polymers: An Emerging Technology; Aldissi, M., Ed.; Kluwer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 1993; pp. 179-190.
3. Otero, T.F. Conducting polymers, electrochemistry, and biomimicking processes. In Modern Aspects of Electrochemistry; Bockris, J.O.M., White, R.E., Conway, B.E., Eds.; Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publisher: New York, NY, USA, 1999; pp. 307-434.
4. Otero, T.F. Electrochemomechanical devices based on conducting polymers. In Polymer Sensors and Actuators; de Rossi, D., Osada, Y., Eds.; Springer: Berlin, Germany, 2000; pp. 295-323.
5. Otero, T.F. Biomimicking materials with smart polymers. In Structural Biological Materials. Design and Structure-Properties Relationships; Elices, M., Cahn, R.W., Eds.; Pergamon Materials Series: Amsterdam, the Netherlands, 2000; pp. 187-220.
6. Otero, T.F. Artificial muscles, sensing and multifunctionality. In Intelligent Materials; Shahinpoor, M., Schenider, H.-J., Eds.; Royal Society of Chemistry: Cambridge, UK, 2008; pp. 142-190.
7. Dallolio, A.; Dascola, G.; Varacca, V.; Bocchi, V. Electronic paramagnetic resonance and conductivity of a black electrolytic oxypyrrole. Cr. Acad. Sci. C. Chim. 1968, 267, 433.
8. Diaz, A.F.; Kanazawa, K.K.; Gardini, G.P. Electrochemical polymerization of pyrrole. J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun. 1979, 14, 635-636.
9. Diaz, A.F.; Lee, W.Y.; Logan, A.; Green, D.C. Chemical modification of a polypyrrole electrode surface. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1980, 108, 377-380.
10. Salmon, M.; Kanazawa, K.K.; Diaz, A.F.; Krounbi, M. A Chemical route to pyrrole polymer-films. J. Polym. Sci. Part C: Polym. Lett. 1982, 20, 187-193.
11. Rapi, S.; Bocchi, V.; Gardini, G.P. Conducting polypyrrole by chemical synthesis in water. Synth. Met. 1988, 24, 217-221.
12. Rodriguez, J.; Grande, H.J.; Otero, T.F. Polypyrroles: from basic research to technological applications. In Handbook of Organic Conductive Molecules and Polymers; Nalwa, H.S., Ed.; John Wiley & Sons: Chichester, UK, 1997; pp. 415-468.
13. Wallace, G.G.; Spinks, G.M.; Kane-Maguire, L.A.P.; Teasdale, P.R. Assembly of polypyrroles. In Conductive Electroactive Polymers: Intelligent Materials Systems; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2003; pp. 51-88.
14. Huang, W.S.; Humphrey, B.D.; MacDiarmid, A.G. Polyaniline, A Novel conducting polymer-morphology and chemistry of its oxidation and reduction in aqueous-electrolytes. J. Chem. Soc. Faraday Trans. I 1986, 82, 2385-2400.
15. Letheby, H. XXIX. On the production of a blue substance by the electrolysis of sulphate of aniline. J. Chem. Soc. 1862, 15, 161-163.
16. Mohilner, D.M.; Argersinger, W.J.; Adams, R.N. Investigation of kinetics and mechanism of anodic oxidation of aniline in aqueous sulfuric acid solution at a platinum electrode. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1962, 84, 3618-3622.
17. Kitani, A.; Kaya, M.; Sasaki, K. Performance study of aqueous polyaniline batteries. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1986, 133, 1069-1073.
18. Trivedi, D.C. Polyanilines. In Handbook of Organic Conductive Molecules and Polymers, 2nd ed.; Nalwa, H.S., Ed.; John Wiley & Sons: Chichester, UK, 1997; pp. 505-572.
19. Wallace, G.G.; Spinks, G.M.; Kane-Maguire, L.A.P.; Teasdale, P.R. Synthesis of polyanilines. In Conductive Electroactive Polymers: Intelligent Materials Systems; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2003; pp. 121-160.
20. Hotta, S.; Soga, M.; Sonoda, N. Novel organosynthetic routes to polythiophene and its derivatives. Synth. Met. 1988, 26, 267-279.
21. Yamamoto, T.; Sanechika, K.; Yamamoto, A. Preparation of thermostable and electric- conducting poly(2,5-thienylene). J. Polym. Sci. Polym. Lett. Ed. 1980, 18, 9-12.
22. Diaz, A.F.; Crowley, J.; Bargon, J.; Gardini, G.P.; Torrance, J. B. Electrooxidation of aromatic oligomers and conducting polymers. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1981, 121, 355-361.
23. Wallace, G.G.; Spinks, G.M.; Kane-Maguire, L.A.P.; Teasdale, P.R. Synthesis and properties of polythiophenes. In Conductive Electroactive Polymers: Intelligent Materials Systems; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2003; pp. 179-206.
24. Tourillon, G.; Garnier, F. New electrochemically generated organic conducting polymers. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1982, 135, 173-178.
25. Ohsawa, T.; Kaneto, K.; Yoshino, K. Electrical and optical-properties of electrochemically prepared polyfuran. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 1984, 23, L663-L665.
26. Zotti, G.; Schiavon, G.; Comisso, N.; Berlin, A.; Pagani, G. Electrochemical synthesis and characterization of polyconjugated polyfuran. Synth. Met. 1990, 36, 337-351.
27. Waltman, R.J.; Diaz, A.F.; Bargon, J. Substituent effects in the electropolymerization of aromatic heterocyclic-compounds. J. Phys. Chem. 1984, 88, 4343-4346.
28. Pandey, P.C. A new conducting polymer-coated glucose sensor. J. Chem. Soc. Faraday Trans. I 1988, 84, 2259-2265.
29. Diaz, A.F.; Castillo, J.; Kanazawa, K.K.; Logan, J.A.; Salmon, M.; Fajardo, O. Conducting poly-n-alkylpyrrole polymer-films. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1982, 133, 233-239.
30. Macinnes, D.; Funt, B. L. Poly-ortho-methoxyaniline-a new soluble conducting polymer. Synth. Met. 1988, 25, 235-242.
31. Somanathan, N.; Radhakrishnan, S. Optical properties of functionalized polythiophenes. Int. J. Mod. Phys. B 2005, 19, 4645-4676.
32. Abdou, M.S.A.; Holdcroft, S. Self-doped conductive polymers. In Handbook of Organic Conductive Molecules and Polymers, 2nd ed.; Nalwa, H.S., Ed.; John Wiley & Sons: Chichester, UK, 1997; pp. 833-858.
33. Freund, M.S.; Deore, B.A. Self-Doped Conducting Polymers; John Wiley & Sons: Chichester, UK, 2007.
34. Nazzal, A.I.; Street, G.B. Pyrrole styrene graft-copolymers. J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun. 1985, 6, 375-376.
35. Wei, Y.; Hariharan, R.; Patel, S.A. Chemical and electrochemical copolymerization of aniline with alkyl ring-substituted anilines. Macromolecules 1990, 23, 758-764.
36. Carrasco, J.; Figueras, A.; Otero, T.F.; Brillas, E. Anodic electrosynthesis and cathodic electrodissolution of poly(2,5-di-(2-thienyl)pyrrole). A new way of processibility. Synth. Met. 1993, 61, 253-258.
37. Gumbs, R.W. Polythiophene and polypyrrole copolymers. In Handbook of Organic Conductive Molecules and Polymers, 2nd ed.; Nalwa, H.S., Ed.; John Wiley & Sons: Chichester, UK, 1997; pp. 469-504.
38. Ferraris, J.P.; Guerrero, D.J. Recent advances in heteroatomic copolymers. In Handbook of Conducting Polymers; Skotheim, T., Elsenbaumer, R.L., Reynolds, J.R., Eds.; Marcel Dekker: New York, NY, USA, 1997; pp. 259-276.
39. Otero, T.F.; Vázquez, M.V. Electrogeneration of a composite polypyrrole-carboxymethylcellulose: kinetic study. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1995, 397, 171-176.
40. Otero, T.F.; Olazábal, V. Electrogeneration of polypyrrole in presence of polyvinylsulphonate. Kinetic study. Electrochim. Acta 1996, 41, 213-220.
41. Otero, T.F.; González-Tejera, M.J. Polypyrrole + polyacrylate composites: electrogeneration. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1996, 410, 69-77.
42. Otero, T.F.; Sansiñena, J.M. Influence of synthesis conditions on polypyrrole-poly(styrenesulphonate) composite electroactivity. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1996, 412, 109-116.
43. Gómez-Romero, P.; Lira-Cantú, M. Hybrid organic-inorganic electrodes: the molecular material formed between polypyrrole and the phosphomolybdate anion. Adv. Mater. 1997, 9, 144-147.
44. Saunders, R.; Murray, K.S.; Flemming, R.J.; Cervini, R.; Allen, N. S. In Handbook of Organic Conductive Molecules and Polymers, 3rd ed.; Nalwa, H.S., Ed.; John Wiley & Sons: Chichester, UK, 1997; pp. 634-676.
45. Clemente-Leon, M.; Coronado, E.; Galan-Mascaros, J.R.; Gimenez-Saiz, C.; Gomez-Garcia, C.J.; Fernandez-Otero, T. Hybrid molecular materials based on organic molecules and the inorganic magnetic cluster [M-4(H2O)(2)(PW9O34)(2)](10-) (M2+ = Co, Mn). J. Mater. Chem. 1998, 8, 309-312.
46. Otero, T.F.; Herrasti, P.; Ocon, P.; Alves, C.R. Electrogeneration of polypyrrole-carboxymethylcellulose composites: electrochemical, microgravimetric and morphological studies. Electrochim. Acta 1998, 43, 1089-1100.
47. Ruckenstein, E.; Chen, J.H. Polypyrrole conductive composites prepared by coprecipitation. Polymer 1991, 32, 1230-1235.
48. De Paoli, M.A. Conductive polymer blends and composites. In Handbook of Organic Conductive Molecules and Polymers, 2nd ed.; Nalwa, H.S., Ed.; John Wiley & Sons: Chichester, UK, 1997; pp. 773-798.
49. Huang, J.C. Carbon black filled conducting polymers and polymer blends. Adv. Polym. Technol. 2002, 21, 299-313.
50. Otero, T.F.; GonzalezTejera, M.J. Polypyrrole plus polyacrylate composites, kinetic study. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1997, 429, 19-25.
51. Otero, T.F. Artificial muscles, electrodissolution and redox processes in conducting polymers. In Handbook of Organic Conductive Molecules and Polymers; Nalwa, H.S., Ed.; John Wiley & Sons: New York, NY, USA, 1997; pp. 517-594.
52. Otero, T.F. Electrochemomechanical devices: artificial muscles based on conducting polymers. In Handbook of Conducting Polymers, 3rd ed.; Skotheim, T.A., Elsenhaumer, R.L., Reynolds, J.R., Eds.; Marcel Dekker Inc.: New York, NY, USA, 1998; pp. 1015-1028.
53. Inzelt, G.; Horányi, G.; Chambers, J.Q. Radiotracer study of the sorption of counter- and co-ions in tetracyanoquinodimethane and poly(vinyl ferrocene) modified electrodes. Electrochim. Acta 1987, 32, 757-763.
54. Tsai, E.W.; Pajkossy, T.; Rajeshwar, K.; Reynolds, J.R. Anion-exchange behavior of polypyrrole membranes. J. Phys. Chem. 1988, 92, 3560-3565.
55. Shimidzu, T.; Ohtani, A.; Iyoda, T.; Honda, K. Effective adsorption desorption of cations on a polypyrrole polymer anion composite electrode. J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun. 1986, 18, 1415-1417.
56. Shimidzu, T.; Ohtani, A.; Iyoda, T.; Honda, K. Charge-controllable polypyrrole polyelectrolyte composite membranes. II. Effect of incorporated anion size on the electrochemical oxidation reduction process. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1987, 224, 123-135.
57. Li, F.B.; Albery, W.J. Electrochemical and in situ electron-paramagnetic resonance studies of polypyrrole doped with polystyrene sulfonate. J. Chem. Soc. Faraday Trans. I 1991,87, 2949-2954.
58. Yue, J.; Wang, Z.H.; Cromack, K.R.; Epstein, A.J.; Macdiarmid, A.G. Effect of sulfonic-acid group on polyaniline backbone. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1991, 113, 2665-2671.
59. Otero, T.F.; Santos, F. Polythiophene oxidation: rate coefficients, activation energy and conformational energies. Electrochim. Acta 2008, 53, 3166-3174.
60. Otero, T.F.; Abadias, R. Potentiostatic oxidation of poly(3-methylthiophene): influence of the prepolarization time at cathodic potentials on the kinetics. J. Electroanal. Chem. 2008, 618, 39-44.
61. Hillman, A.R.; Loveday, D.C.; Swann, M.J.; Eales, R.M.; Hamnett, A.; Higgins, S.J.; Bruckenstein, S.; Wilde, C.P. Charge transport in electroactive polymer-films. Faraday Discuss. Chem. Soc. 1989, 88, 151-163.
62. Inzelt, G. Mechanism of charge transport in polymer-modified electrodes. In Electroanalytical Chemistry: A Series of Advances; Bard, A.J., Ed.; Marcel Dekker: New York, NY, USA, 1994; pp. 89-243.
63. Inzelt, G. Redox Transformations and Transport Processes. In Conducting Polymers, Scholz, F. Ed. Springer-Verlag Berlin: Heidelberg, Germany, 2008; pp. 169-224.
64. Kiefer, R.; Chu, S.Y.; Kilmartin, P.A.; Bowmaker, G.A.; Cooney, R.P.; Travas-Sejdic, J. Mixed-ion linear actuation behaviour of polypyrrole. Electrochim. Acta 2007, 52, 2386-2391.
65. Fermín, D.J.; Teruel, H.; Scharifker, B.R. Changes in the population of neutral species and charge carriers during electrochemical oxidation of polypyrrole. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1996, 401, 207-214.
66. Sadki, S.; Schottland, P.; Brodie, N.; Sabouraud, G. The mechanisms of pyrrole electropolymerization. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2000, 29, 283-293.
67. Otero, T.F.; Angulo, E.; Rodriguez, J.; Santamaria, C. Electrochemomechanical properties from a bilayer-polypyrrole nonconducting and flexible material artificial muscle. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1992, 341, 369-375.
68. Okuzaki, H.; Funasaka, K. Electromechanical properties of a humido-sensitive conducting polymer film. Macromolecules 2000, 33, 8307-8311.
69. Smela, E. Conjugated polymer actuators for biomedical applications. Adv. Mater. 2003, 15, 481-494.
70. Cortes, M.T.; Moreno, J.C. Artificial muscles based on conducting polymers. E-Polymers 2003, 41, 1-42.
71. Kaufman, F.B.; Schroeder, A.H.; Engler, E.M.; Patel, V.V. Polymer-modified electrodes-a new class of electrochromic materials. Appl. Phys. Lett. 1980, 36, 422-425.
72. Heuer, H.W.; Wehrmann, R.; Kirchmeyer, S. Electrochromic window based on conducting poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)poly(styrene sulfonate). Adv. Funct. Mater. 2002, 12, 89-94.
73. Mortimer, R.J.; Dyer, A.L.; Reynolds, J.R. Electrochromic organic and polymeric materials for display applications. Displays 2006, 27, 2-18.
74. Dyer, A.L.; Reynolds, J.R. Electrochromism of conjugated conducting polymers. In Handbook of Conducting Polymers, 3rd ed.; Skotheim, T.A., Elsenbaumer, R.L., Reynolds, J.R., Eds.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2007.
75. 2 active area dual conjugated polymer electrochromic windows. Org. Electron. 2007, 8, 367-381.
76. Feldman, B.J.; Burgmayer, P.; Murray, R.W. The Potential Dependence of electrical-conductivity and chemical charge storage of poly(pyrrole) films on electrodes. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1985, 107, 872-878.
77. Irvin, J.A.; Irvin, D.J.; Stenger-Smith, J.D. Electroactive polymers for batteries and supercapacitors. In Handbook of Conducting Polymers, 3rd ed.; Skotheim, T.A., Elsenbaumer, R.L., Reynolds, J.R., Eds.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2007.
78. Peng, C.; Zhang, S.W.; Jewell, D.; Chen, G.Z. Carbon nanotube and conducting polymer composites for supercapacitors. Prog. Nat. Sci. 2008, 18, 777-788.
79. Burgmayer, P.; Murray, R.W. An ion gate membrane-electrochemical control of ion permeability through a membrane with an embedded electrode. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1982, 104, 6139-6140.
80. Ehrenbeck, C.; Juttner, K. Development of an anion cation permeable free-standing membrane based on electrochemical switching of polypyrrole. Electrochim. Acta 1996, 41, 511-518.
81. Chan, C.; Chang, S.; Naguib, H.E. Development and characterization of polypyrrole bi-layer and tri-layer thin porous films. Smart. Mater. Struct. 2009, 18, 104022.
82. Zinger, B.; Miller, L.L. Timed release of chemicals from polypyrrole films. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1984, 106, 6861-6863.
83. Miller, L.L.; Zinger, B.; Zhou, Q.X. Electrically controlled release of hexacyanoferrate(4-) from polypyrrole. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1987, 109, 2267-2272.
84. Zhong, Y.; Bellamkonda, R.V. Controlled release of anti-inflammatory agent [alpha]-MSH from neural implants. J. Controlled Release 2005, 106, 309-318.
85. Otero, T.F. Biomimetics, artificial muSCLES & NANO-BIO 2007: scientists meet doctors. J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 2008, 127, 011001.
86. Binh, T.T.N. Development of a biomimetic nanoporous membrane for the selective transport of charged proteins. Bioinspir. Biomim. 2008, 3, 035008.
87. Otero, T.F. Soft, wet, and reactive polymers. Sensing artificial muscles and conformational energy. J. Mater. Chem. 2009, 19, 681-689.
88. Li, C.; Bai, H.; Shi, G.Q. Conducting polymer nanomaterials: electrosynthesis and applications. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2009, 38, 2397-2409.
89. Otero, T.F. Electro-chemo-mechanical actuators touching and sensing both, physical and chemical ambient. Adv. Sci. Tech. 2008, 61, 112-121.
90. Sansiñena, J.M. Músculos artificiales: dispositivos electroquimiomecánicos basados en polímeros conductores. University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), San Sebastian, Spain, 1998.
91. Otero, T.F.; Sansiñena, J.M. Artificial muscles based on conducting polymers. Bioelectroch. Bioener. 1995, 38, 411-414.
92. Otero, T.F.; Cortes, M.T. A sensing muscle. Sens. Actuators B 2003, 96, 152-156.
93. Otero, T.F. Sensing muscles based on conducting polymers: conformational energy. In Proceedings of Actuator 08, Bremen, Germany, 2008; pp. 248-251.
94. Shimoda, S.; Smela, E. The effect of pH on polymerization and volume change in PPy(DBS). Electrochim. Acta 1998, 44, 219-238.
95. Maw, S.; Smela, E.; Yoshida, K.; Sommer-Larsen, P.; Stein, R.B. The effects of varying deposition current density on bending behaviour in PPy(DBS)-actuated bending beams. Sens. Actuators A 2001, 89, 175-184.
96. Takashima, W.; Pandey, S.S.; Kaneto, K. Cyclic voltammetric and electrochemomechanical characteristics of freestanding polypyrrole films in diluted media. Thin Solid Films 2003, 438-439, 339-345.
97. Otero, T.F.; Ariza, M.J. Revisiting the electrochemical and polymeric behavior of a polypyrrole free-standing electrode in aqueous solution. J. Phys. Chem. B 2003, 107, 13954-13961.
98. John, M.H.; Ian, W.H.; John, B. A comparative analysis of actuator technologies for robotics. In The Robotics Review, 2nd ed.; MIT Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 1992; pp. 299-342.
99. Madden, J.D.W.; Vandesteeg, N.A.; Anquetil, P.A.; Madden, P.G.A.; Takshi, A.; Pytel, R.Z.; Lafontaine, S.R.; Wieringa, P.A.; Hunter, I.W. Artificial muscle technology: physical principles and naval prospects. IEEE J. Oceanic. Eng. 2004, 29, 706-728.
100. Dunn-Rankin, D.; Leal, E.M.; Walther, D.C. Personal power systems. Progt. Energ. Combust. 2005, 31, 422-465.
101. Katchalsky, A. Rapid swelling and deswelling of reversible gels of polymeric acids by ionization. Experientia 1949, 5, 319-320.
102. Katchalsky, A.; Eisenberg, H. Polyvinylphosphate contractile systems. Nature 1950,166, 267-267.
103. Kuhn, W.; Hargitay, B.; Katchalsky, A.; Eisenberg, H. Reversible dilation and contraction by changing the state of ionization of high-polymer acid networks. Nature 1950, 165, 514-516
104. Katchalsky, A.; Zwick, M. Mechanochemistry and ion exchange. J. Polym. Sci. 1955, 16, 221-234.
105. Pei, Q. B.; Inganas, O. Conjugated polymers and the bending cantilever method-electrical muscles and smart devices. Adv. Mater. 1992, 4, 277-278.
106. Otero, T.F.; Angulo, E.; Rodriguez, J.; Santamaria, C. Dispositivos laminares que emplean polímeros conductores capaces de provocar movimientos mecánicos. Spanish patent 1992/1/17.
107. Otero, T.F.; Rodriguez, J.; Santamaria, C. Músculos artificiales formados por multicapas: polímeros conductores-no conductores. Spanish patent 1992/12/28.
108. Mazzoldi, A.; Degl'Innocenti, C.; Michelucci, M.; De Rossi, D. Actuative properties of polyaniline fibers under electrochemical stimulation. Mat. Sci. Eng. C-Bio 1998, 6, 65-72.
109. Madden, J.; Hunter, I.W.; Gilbert, R.J. Development of an artificial muscle fiber composed of the conducting polymer actuator polypyrrole. Gastroenterology 2002, 122, A164.
110. Ding, J.; Liu, L.; Spinks, G.M.; Zhou, D.; Wallace, G.G.; Gillespie, J. High performance conducting polymer actuators utilising a tubular geometry and helical wire interconnects. Synth. Met. 2003, 138, 391-398.
111. Yamato, K.; Kaneto, K. Tubular linear actuators using conducting polymer, polypyrrole. Anal. Chim. Acta 2006, 568, 133-137.
112. Foroughi, J.; Spinks, G.M.; Wallace, G.G. Effect of synthesis conditions on the properties of wet spun polypyrrole fibres. Synth. Met. 2009, 159, 1837-1843.
113. Spinks, G.M.; Zhou, D.Z.; Liu, L.; Wallace, G.G. The amounts per cycle of polypyrrole electromechanical actuators. Smart. Mater. Struct. 2003, 12, 468-472.
114. Hara, S.; Zama, T.; Sewa, S.; Takashima, W.; Kaneto, K. Polypyrrole-metal coil composites as fibrous artificial muscles. Chem. Lett. 2003, 32, 800-801.
115. Hara, S.; Zama, T.; Ametani, A.; Takashima, W.; Kaneto, K. Enhancement in electrochemical strain of a polypyrrole-metal composite film actuator. J. Mater. Chem. 2004, 14, 2724-2725.
116. Hara, S.; Zama, T.; Takashima, W.; Kaneto, K. Polypyrrole-metal coil composite actuators as artificial muscle fibres. Synth. Met. 2004, 146, 47-55.
117. Bay, L.; West, K.; Sommer-Larsen, P.; Skaarup, S.; Benslimane, M. A conducting polymer artificial muscle with 12% linear strain. Adv. Mater. 2003, 15, 310-313.
118. Lu, W.; Fadeev, A.G.; Qi, B.H.; Smela, E.; Mattes, B.R.; Ding, J.; Spinks, G.M.; Mazurkiewicz, J.; Zhou, D.Z.; Wallace, G.G.; MacFarlane, D.R.; Forsyth, S.A.; Forsyth, M. Use of ionic liquids for pi-conjugated polymer electrochemical devices. Science 2002, 297, 983-987.
119. Okuzaki, H. A biomorphic origami actuator fabricated by folding a conducting paper. J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 2008, 127, 012001.
120. Kaneto, K.; Sonoda, Y.; Takashima, W. Direct measurement and mechanism of electro-chemomechanical expansion and contraction in polypyrrole films. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 1 2000, 39, 5918-5922.
121. Pandey, S.S.; Takashima, W.; Kaneto, K. Structure property correlation: electrochemomechanical deformation in polypyrrole films. Thin Solid Films 2003, 438, 206-211.
122. Zama, T.; Hara, S.; Takashima, W.; Kaneto, K. The correlation between electrically induced stress and mechanical tensile strength of polypyrrole actuators. Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn. 2004, 77, 1425-1426.
123. Baughman, R.H.; Shacklette, L.W. Application of dopant-induced structure-property changes of conducting polymers. In Science and Application of Conducting Polymers; Salaneck, W.R., Clark, D.T., Samuelsen, E.J., Eds.; IOP Publishing Ltd: Bristol, UK, 1991; pp. 47-61.
124. Pei, Q.B.; Inganas, O. Electrochemical applications of the bending beam method. I. Mass-transport and volume changes in polypyrrole during redox. J. Phys. Chem. 1992, 96, 10507-10514.
125. Suarez, M.F.; Compton, R.G. In situ atomic force microscopy study of polypyrrole synthesis and the volume changes induced by oxidation and reduction of the polymer. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1999, 462, 211-221.
126. Smela, E.; Gadegaard, N. Surprising volume change in PPy(DBS): an atomic force microscopy study. Adv. Mater. 1999, 11, 953-957.
127. Smela, E.; Gadegaard, N. Volume change in polypyrrole studied by atomic force microscopy. J. Phys. Chem. B 2001, 105, 9395-9405.
128. Barbero, C.; Kotz, R. Nanoscale Dimensional changes and optical-properties of polyaniline measured by in-situ spectroscopic ellipsometry. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1994, 141, 859-865.
129. Ehrenbeck, C.; Juttner, K. Ion conductivity and permselectivity measurements of polypyrrole membranes at variable states of oxidation. Electrochim. Acta 1996, 41, 1815-1823.
130. Juttner, K.; Ehrenbeck, C. Electrochemical measurements of the ion conductivity, permselectivity and transference numbers of polypyrrole and polypyrrole derivatives. J. Solid State Electrochem. 1998, 2, 60-66.
131. Andrade, E. M.; Molina, F.V.; Florit, M.I.; Posadas, D. Volume changes of poly(2-methylaniline) upon redox switching-anion and relaxation effects. Electrochem. Solid-State Lett. 2000, 3, 504-507.
132. Lizarraga, L.; Andrade, E.M.; Molina, F.V. Swelling and volume changes of polyaniline upon redox switching. J. Electroanal. Chem. 2004, 561, 127-135.
133. Davis, A.P. Nanotechnology-synthetic molecular motors. Nature 1999, 401, 120-121.
134. Kay, E.R.; Leigh, D.A.; Zerbetto, F. Synthetic molecular motors and mechanical machines. Angew. Chem. Int. Edit. 2007, 46, 72-191.
135. Pei, Q.; Inganäs, O. Electrochemical muscles: bending strips built from conjugated polymers. Synth. Met. 1993, 57, 3718-3723.
136. Takashima, W.; Kaneko, M.; Kaneto, K.; Macdiarmid, A.G. The electrochemical actuator using electrochemically-deposited poly-aniline film. Synth. Met. 1995, 71, 2265-2266.
137. Smela, E.; Inganäs, O.; Pei, Q.B.; Lundstrom, I. Electrochemical muscles-micromachining fingers and corkscrews. Adv. Mater. 1993, 5, 630-632.
138. Jager, E.W.H.; Smela, E.; Inganäs, O. Microfabricating conjugated polymer actuators. Science 2000, 290, 1540-1545.
139. Jager, E.W.H.; Inganäs, O.; Lundstrom, I. Microrobots for micrometer-size objects in aqueous media: Potential tools for single-cell manipulation. Science 2000, 288, 2335-2338.
140. Baughman, R.H. Conducting polymer artificial muscles. Synth. Met. 1996, 78, 339-353.
141. Takashima, W.; Pandey, S.S.; Kaneto, K. Investigation of bi-ionic contribution for the enhancement of bending actuation in polypyrrole film. Sens. Actuators B 2003, 89, 48-52.
142. Han, G.; Shi, G. Conducting polymer electrochemical actuator made of high-strength three-layered composite films of polythiophene and polypyrrole. Sensor Actuat. B-Chem 2004, 99, 525-531.
143. Higgins, S.J.; Lovell, K.V.; Rajapakse, R.M.G.; Walsby, N.M. Grafting and electrochemical characterisation of poly-(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) films, on Nafion and on radiation-grafted polystyrenesulfonate-polyvinylidene fluoride composite surfaces. J. Mater. Chem. 2003, 13, 2485-2489.
144. Deshpande, S.D.; Kim, J.; Yun, S.R. New electro-active paper actuator using conducting polypyrrole: actuation behaviour in LiClO4 acetonitrile solution. Synth. Met. 2005, 149, 53-58.
145. Blonsky, P. M.; Meridian, I. Structurally stable gelled electrolytes. 1997.
146. Song, M.K.; Cho, J.Y.; Cho, B.W.; Rhee, H.W. Characterization of UV-cured gel polymer electrolytes for rechargeable lithium batteries. J. Power Sources 2002, 110, 209-215.
147. Vidal, F.; Popp, J.F.; Plesse, C.; Chevrot, C.; Teyssie, D. Feasibility of conducting semi-interpenetrating networks based on a poly(ethylene oxide) network and poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) in actuator design. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2003, 90, 3569-3577.
148. Plesse, C.; Vidal, F.; Randriamahazaka, H.; Teyssie, D.; Chevrot, C. Synthesis and characterization of conducting interpenetrating polymer networks for new actuators. Polymer 2005, 46, 7771-7778.
149. Plesse, C.; Vidal, F.; Gauthier, C.; Pelletier, J.M.; Chevrot, C.; Teyssié, D. Poly(ethylene oxide)/polybutadiene based IPNs synthesis and characterization. Polymer 2007, 48, 696-703.
150. Cho, M.; Seo, H.; Nam, J.; Choi, H.; Koo, J.; Lee, Y. High ionic conductivity and mechanical strength of solid polymer electrolytes based on NBR/ionic liquid and its application to an electrochemical actuator. Sensor Actuat. B-Chem 2007, 128, 70-74.
151. Tran-Van, F.; Beouch, L.; Vidal, F.; Yammine, P.; Teyssie, D.; Chevrot, C. Self-supported semi-interpenetrating polymer networks for new design of electrochromic devices. Electrochim. Acta 2008, 53, 4336-4343.
152. Vidal, F.; Plesse, C.; Palaprat, G.; Juger, J.; Citerin, J.; Kheddar, A.; Chevrot, C.; Teyssie, D. Synthesis and characterization of ipns for electrochemical actuators. In Artificial Muscle Actuators Using Electroactive Polymers; Vincenzini, P., BarCohen, Y., Carpi, F., Eds.; Trans Tech Publications Ltd: Stafa-Zurich, Switzerland, 2009; pp. 8-17.
153. Otero, T.F.; Cortes, M.T.; Boyano, I. Macroscopic devices and complex movements developed with artificial muscles. Smart Structures and Materials 2002: Electroactive Polymer Actuators and Devices (Eapad), Bellingham, WA, USA, 2002; pp. 395-402.
154. Otero, T.F.; Cortes, M.T.; Arenas, G.V. Linear movements from two bending triple-layers. Electrochim. Acta 2007, 53, 1252-1258.
155. Otero, T.F.; Broschart, M. Polypyrrole artificial muscles: a new rhombic element. Construction and electrochemomechanical characterization. J. Appl. Electrochem. 2006, 36, 205-214.
156. Vozzi, G.; Carpi, F.; Mazzoldi, A. Realization of conducting polymer actuators using a controlled volume microsyringe system. Smart. Mater. Struct. 2006, 15, 279-287.
157. Alici, G.; Huynh, N. N. Performance quantification of conducting polymer actuators for real applications: a microgripping system. IEEE ASME Trans. Mechatronics 2007, 12, 73-84.
158. Smela, E.; Inganäs, O.; Lundstrom, I. Controlled folding of micrometer-size structures. Science 1995, 268, 1735-1738.
159. Pede, D.; Smela, E.; Johansson, T.; Johansson, M.; Inganäs, O. A general-purpose conjugated-polymer device array for imaging. Adv. Mater. 1998, 10, 233-237.
160. Smela, E.; Kallenbach, M.; Holdenried, J. Electrochemically driven polypyrrole bilayers for moving and positioning bulk micromachined silicon plates. J. Microelectromech. S. 1999, 8, 373-383.
161. Smela, E. A microfabricated movable electrochromic pixel based on polypyrrole. Adv. Mater. 1999, 11, 1343-1345.
162. Jager, E.W.H.; Smela, E.; Inganäs, O.; Lundstrom, I. Polypyrrole microactuators. Synth. Met. 1999, 102, 1309-1310.
163. Jager, E.W.H.; Inganäs, O.; Lundstrom, I. Perpendicular actuation with individually controlled polymer microactuators. Adv. Mater. 2001, 13, 76-79.
164. Roemer, M.; Kurzenknabe, T.; Oesterschulze, E.; Nicoloso, N. Microactuators based on conducting polymers. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2002, 373, 754-757.
165. He, X.M.; Li, C.; Chen, F.G.; Shi, G.Q. Polypyrrole microtubule actuators for seizing and transferring microparticles. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2007, 17, 2911-2917.
166. Kiefer, R.; Mandviwalla, X.; Archer, R.; Tjahyono, S.S.; Wang, H.; MacDonald, B.; Bowmaker, G.A.; Kilmartin, P.A.; Travas-Sejdic, J. The application of polypyrrole trilayer actuators in microfluidics and robotics-art. no. 69271E. Electroactive Polymer Actuators and Devices (Eapad) 2008, Bellingham, WA, USA, 2008; pp. E9271-E9271.
167. Otero, T.F.; Cortes, M.T. Artificial muscle: movement and position control. Chem. Commun. 2004, 3, 284-285.
168. Otero, T.F.; Sansinena, J.M. Bilayer dimensions and movement in artificial muscles. Bioelectroch. Bioener. 1997, 42, 117-122.
169. Otero, T.F.; Sansinena, J.M. Soft and wet conducting polymers for artificial muscles. Adv. Mater. 1998, 10, 491-494.
170. Otero, T.F.; Cortes, M.T. Electrochemical characterization and control triple-layer muscles. Smart Structures and Materials 2000: Electroactive Polymer Actuators and Devices (Eapad), Bellingham, WA, USA, 2000; pp. 252-260.
171. Otero, T.F.; Cortes, M.T. Characterization of triple layers. Smart Structures and Materials 2001: Electroactive Polymer Actuators and Devices, Bellingham, WA, USA, 2001; pp. 93-100.
172. Otero, T.F.; Boyano, I.; Cortes, M.T.; Vazquez, G. Nucleation, non-stoiquiometry and sensing muscles from conducting polymers. Electrochim. Acta 2004, 49, 3719-3726.
173. Otero, T.F.; Cortes, M.T. Artificial muscles with tactile sensitivity. Adv. Mater.2003, 15, 279-282.
174. Otero, T.F.; Cortes, M.T.; Boyano, L.; Vazquez, G. Nucleation, non-stoiquiometry, and tactile muscles with conducting polymers. Smart Structures and Materials 2004: Electroactive Polymer Actuators and Devices (Eapad), Bellingham, WA, USA, 2004; pp. 425-432.