Neuropharmacology of vestibular system disorders

Current Neuropharmacology

Volumn 8, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 26-40

  Soto, Enrique ^a   Vega, Rosario ^a  

^a BENEMÉRITA UNIVERSIDAD AUTÓNOMA DE PUEBLA   (Mexico)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMPA RECEPTOR; ATROPINE; BACLOFEN; BETAHISTINE; CINNARIZINE; CLONAZEPAM; CYCLIZINE; DIAZEPAM; DIFENIDOL; DIHYDROPYRIDINE; DIPHENHYDRAMINE; DIZOCILPINE; DROPERIDOL; EXCITATORY AMINO ACID RECEPTOR; FENTANYL; GABAPENTIN; GLUTAMIC ACID; ION CHANNEL; KAINIC ACID RECEPTOR; LORAZEPAM; MECLOZINE; MEMANTINE; METABOTROPIC RECEPTOR; N METHYL DEXTRO ASPARTIC ACID RECEPTOR; NERAMEXANE; PROMETHAZINE; SCOPOLAMINE; SULPIRIDE; TRIMETAZIDINE; VERAPAMIL;

DRUG MECHANISM; EFFERENT NERVE; HAIR CELL; NEUROMODULATION; NEUROPHARMACOLOGY; REVIEW; SENSORY NERVE; SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION; VESTIBULAR DISORDER;

EID: 77950200975     PISSN: 1570159X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/157015910790909511     Document Type: Review

References (169)

1. Aantaa, E. (1991) Treatment of acute vestibular vertigo. Acta Otolaryngol., Suppl. 479, 44-47.
2. Adunka, O., Moustaklis, E., Weber, A., May, A., von Ilberg, C., Gstoettner, W., Kierner, A.C. (2003) Labyrinth anesthesia-a forgotten but practical treatment option in Ménière's disease. ORL J. Otorhinolaryngol. Relat. Spec., 65, 84-90.
3. Alacio Casero, J., Ortega del Álamo, P. (2003) Efectividad de trimetazidina en pacientes con alteraciones del equilibrio. Estudio prospectivo multicéntrico. ORL-DIPS, 30, 184-192.
4. Almanza, A., Vega, R., Soto, E. (2003) Calcium current in type I hair cells isolated from the semicircular canal crista ampullaris of the rat. Brain Res., 994, 175-180.
5. Anderson, A.D., Troyanovskaya, M., Wackym, P.A. (1997) Differential expression of alpha2-7, alpha9 and beta2-4 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunit mRNA in the vestibular end-organs and Scarpa's ganglia of the rat. Brain Res., 778, 409-413.
6. Andrianov, G.N., Ryzhova, I.V., Tobias, T.V. (2009) Dopaminergic modulation of afferent synaptic transmission in the semicircular canals of frogs. Neurosignals, 17, 222-228.
7. Annoni, J.M., Cochran, S.L., Precht, W. (1984) Pharmacology of the vestibular hair cell-afferent fiber synapse in the frog. J. Neurosci., 4, 2106-2116.
8. Arab, S.F., Düwel, P., Jüngling, E., Westhofen, M., Lückhoff, A. (2004) Inhibition of voltage-gated calcium currents in type II vestibular hair cells by cinnarizine Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's. Arch. Pharmacol., 360, 570-575.
9. Arrang, J.M., Garbarg, M., Quach, T.T., Tuong, D., Yeremian, E., Schwartz, J.C. (1985) Actions of betahistine at histamine receptors in the brain. Eur. J. Pharmacol., 111, 73-84.
10. Balaban, C.D. (2002) Neural substrates linking balance control and anxiety. Physiol Behav., 77, 469-475.
11. Bao, H., Wong, W., Goldberg, J., Eatock, R. (2003) Voltage-gated calcium channel currents in type I and type II hair cells isolated from the rat crista. J. Neurophysiol., 90, 155-164
12. Barciszewski, J., Siboska, G.E., Pedersen, B.O., Clark, B.F., Rattan, S.I. (1997) A mechanism for the in vivo formation of N6-furfuryladenine, kinetin, as a secondary oxidative damage product of DNA. FEBS Lett., 414, 457-460.
13. Barmack, N.H. (2003) Central vestibular system: vestibular nuclei and posterior cerebellum. Brain Res. Bull., 60, 511-541.
14. Basile, A.S., Brichta, A.M., Harris, B.D., Morse, D., Coling, D., Skolnick, P. (1999) Dizocilpine attenuates streptomycin-induced vestibulotoxicity in rats. Neurosci. Lett., 265, 71-74.
15. Bergquist, F., Dutia, M.B. (2006) Central histaminergic modulation of vestibular function -a review. Acta Physiol. Sin., 58, 293-304.
16. Bernard, C., Cochran, S.L., Precht, W. (1985) Presynaptic actions of cholinergic agents upon the hair cell-afferent fiber synapse in the vestibular labyrinth of the frog. Brain Res., 338, 225-236.
17. Botta, L., Mira, E., Valli, S., Perin, P., Zucca, G., Valli, P. (1998) Effects of betahistine on vestibular receptors of the frog. Acta Otolaryngol. (Stockh), 118, 519-523.
18. Botta, L., Mira, E., Valli, S., Zucca, G., Perin, P., Benvenuti, C., Fossati, A., Valli, P. (2000) Effects of betahistine metabolites on frog ampullar receptors. Acta Otolaryngol., 120, 25-27.
19. Botta, L., Tritto, S., Perin, P., Laforenza, U., Gastaldi, G., Zampini, V., Zucca, G., Valli, S., Masetto, S., Valli, P. (2008) Histamine H1 receptors are expressed in mouse and frog semicircular canal sensory epithelia. Neuroreport, 19, 425-429.
20. Bridgeman, D., Hoffman, L., Wackym, P.A., Micevych, P.E., Popper, P. (1996) Distribution of choline acetyltransferase mRNA in the efferent vestibular neurons of the chinchilla. J. Vestib. Res., 6, 203-212.
21. Brown, R.E., Stevens, D.R., Haas, H.L. (2001) The physiology of brain histamine. Prog. Neurobiol., 63, 637-672.
22. Cameron, S.A., Dutia, M.B. (1999) Lesion-induced plasticity in rat vestibular nucleus neurones dependent on glucocorticoid receptor activation. J. Physiol., 518, 151-158.
23. Carrillo, E. (2005) Efecto de cannabinoides sobre la actividad eléctrica de las neuronas aferentes de los canales semicirculares. Tesis para obtener el grado de Licenciatura en Biomedicina, facultad de Medicina de la Universidad Autónoma de Puebla. Mexico.
24. Chambard, J.M., Chabbert, C., Sans, A., Desmadryl, G. (1999) Developmental changes in low and high voltage-activated calcium currents in acutely isolated mouse vestibular neurons. J. Physiol., 518, 141-149.
25. Chávez, O., Vega, R., Soto, E. (2005) Histamine (H3) receptors modulate the excitatory amino acid receptor response of the vestibular afferent. Brain Res., 1064, 1-9.
26. Darlington, C.L., Dutia, M.B., Smith, P.F. (2002) The contribution of the intrinsic excitability of vestibular nucleus neurons to recovery from vestibular damage. Eur. J. Neurosci., 15, 1719-1727.
27. Darlington, C.L., Smith, P.F. (2000) Molecular mechanisms of recovery from vestibular damage in mammals: recent advances. Prog. Neurobiol., 62, 313-325.
28. Dayanithi, G., Desmadryl, G., Travo, C., Chabbert, C., Sans, A. (2007) Trimetazidine modulates AMPA/kainate receptors in rat vestibular ganglion neurons. Eur J Pharmacol., 574, 8-14.
29. Dhote, V., Balaraman, R. (2008) Anti-oxidant activity mediated neuroprotective potential of trimetazidine on focal cerebral ischaemia-reperfusion injury in rats. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol., 35, 630-637.
30. Dirnagl, U., Iadecola, C., Moskowitz, M.A. (1999) Pathobiology of ischaemic stroke: an integrated view. Trends Neurosci., 22, 391-397.
31. Doi, K., Tsumoto, T., Matsunaga, T. (1990) Actions of excitatory amino acid antagonists on synaptic inputs to the rat medial vestibular nucleus: an electrophysiological study in vitro. Exp Brain Res., 82, 254-262.
32. Dowdy, E.G., Goksen, N., Arnold, G.E., Moore, W.T., Fabian, L.W. (1965) A new treatment of Meniere's disease. Arch. Otolaryngol., 82, 494-497.
33. Drescher, M.J., Drescher, D.G. (1991) N-acetylhistidine, glutamate and beta-alanine are concentrated in a receptor cell layer of the trout inner ear. J. Neurochem., 56, 658-664.
34. Düwel, P., Haasler T., Jungling, E., Duong, T.A., Westhofen, M., Luckhoff, A. (2005) Effects of cinnarizine on calcium and pressure-dependent potassium currents in guinea pig vestibular hair cells. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch. Pharmacol., 371, 441-448.
35. Düwel, P., Jüngling, E., Westhofen, M., Lückhoff, A. (2003) Potassium currents in vestibular type II hair cells activated by hydrostatic pressure. Neuroscience, 116, 963-972.
36. Elgoyhen, B., Vetter, D.E., Katz, E., Rothlin, C.V., Heinemann, S.F., Boulter J. (2001) α10: A determinant of nicotinic cholinergic receptor function in mammalian vestibular and cochlear mechanosensory hair cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 98, 3501-3506.
37. Estivill, X., Govea, N., Barcelo, E., Badenas, C., Romero, E., Moral, L., Scozzri, R., D'Urbano, L., Zeviani, M., Torroni, A. (1998) Familial progressive sensorineural deafness is mainly due to the mtDNA A1555G mutation and is enhanced by treatment of aminoglycosides. Am. J. Hum. Genet., 62, 27-35.
38. Eybalin, M. (1993) Neurotransmitters and neuromodulators of the mammalian cochlea. Physiol. Rev., 13, 309-373.
39. Flores, A., Soto, E., Vega, R. (2001) Nitric oxide in the afferent synaptic transmission of vestibular system. Neuroscience, 103, 459-466.
40. Furman, J.M., Balaban, C.D., Jacob, R.G., Marcus, D.A. (2005) Migraine-anxiety related dizziness (MARD): a new disorder? J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, 76, 1-8.
41. Furuya, N., Koizumi, T. (1998) Neurotransmitters of vestibular commissural inhibition in the cat. Acta Otolaryngol., 118, 64-69.
42. Futaki, T., Kitahara, M., Morimoto, M. (1975) Menière's disease and diphenidol. A critical analysis of symptoms and equilibrium function tests. Acta Otolaryngol., Suppl. 330, 120-128.
43. Ganança, M.M., Caovilla, H.H., Munhoz, M.S., Ganança, C.F., da Silva, M.L., Serafini, F., Ganança, F.F. (2007) Optimizing the pharmacological component of integrated balance therapy. Rev. Bras. Otorrinolaringol., 73, 12-18.
44. Gates, P. (2005) Hypothesis: could Meniere's disease be a channelopathy? Intern Med. J., 35, 488-489.
45. Gilling, K., Jatzke, C., Wollenburg, C., Vanejevs, M., Kauss, V., Jirgensons, A., Parsons, C.G. (2007) A novel class of aminoalkylcyclohexanes as uncompetitive, fast, voltage-dependent, N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonists-in vitro characterization. J. Neural Transm., 114, 1529-1537.
46. Gil-Loyzaga, P., Hernández, E., Carricondo, F., Simón, F., Poch- Broto, J. (1999) Trimetazidine prevents cochlear lesions induced by intraperitoneal and perilymphatic administration o kainic acid. Brain Res., 826, 93-103.
47. Gil-Loyzaga, P., Vicente-Torres, M.A., García-Bonacho, M., Esquifino, A. (1997) Presence of catecholamines and serotonin in the rat vestibule. Brain Res., 746, 265-268.
48. Gittis, A.H., du Lac S. (2007) Firing properties of GABAergic versus non-GABAergic vestibular nucleus neurons conferred by a differential balance of potassium currents. J. Neurophysiol,, 97, 3986-3996.
49. Gliddon, C.M., Sansom, A.J., Smith, P.F., Darlington, C.L. (2000) Effects of intra-vestibular nucleus injection of the group I metabotropic glutamate receptor antagonist AIDA on vestibular compensation in guinea pigs. Exp. Brain Res., 134, 74-80.
50. Goldberg, J., Fernández, C. (1980) Efferent vestibular system in the squirrel monkey: anatomical localization and influence on afferent activity. J. Neurophysiol., 43, 986-1025.
51. Gordon, C.R., Shupak, A. (1999) Prevention and treatment of motion sickness in children. CNS Drugs, 12, 369-381.
52. Guth, P., Perin, P., Norris, C.H., Valli, P. (1998) The vestibular hair cells: post-transductional signal processing. Prog. Neurobiol., 54, 193-247.
53. Guth, P.S., Shipon, S., Valli, P., Mira, E., Benvenuti, C. (2000) A pharmacological analysis of the effects of histamine and betahistine on the semicircular canal. In: Vertigine e betaistine Benvenuti, C. Ed. Formenti, Milan, Italy. pp. 43-60.
54. Hahn, A., Sejna, I., Stefflova, B., Schwarz, M., Baumann, W. (2008) A fixed combination of Cinnarizine /Dimenhydrinate for the Treatment of Patients with Acute Vertigo Due to Vestibular disorders: A Randomized, reference-controlled clinical study. Clin. Drug Investig., 28, 89-99.
55. Hain, T.C., Uddin, M. (2003) Pharmacological treatment of vertigo. CNS Drugs, 17, 85-100.
56. Halberstadt, A.L., Balaban, C.D. (2007) Selective anterograde tracing of the individual serotonergic and nonserotonergic components of the dorsal raphe nucleus projection to the vestibular nuclei. Neuroscience, 147, 207-223.
57. Hamzavi, J., Schmetterer, L., Formanek, M. (2002) Vestibular symptoms as a complication of sildenafil: a case report. Wiener Klin. Wochensch. 114, 54-55.
58. Harvey, S.C., Li, X., Skolnick, P., Kirst, H.A. (2000) The antibacterial and NMDA receptor activating properties of aminoglycosides are dissociable. Eur. J. Pharmacol., 387, 1-7.
59. Highstein, S.M., Baker, R. (1985) Action of the efferent vestibular system on primary afferents in the toadfish, Opsanus tau. J. Neurophysiol., 54, 370-384.
60. Highstein, S.M., Holstein, G.R. (2006) The Anatomy of the vestibular nuclei. Prog. Brain Res., 151, 157-203.
61. Hill, S.J., Ganellin, C.R., Timmerman, H., Schwartz, J.C., Shankley, N.P., Young, J.M., Schunack, W., Levi, R., Haas, H.L. (1997) International Union of Pharmacology. XIII. Classification of histamine receptors. Pharmacol. Rev., 49, 253-278.
62. Holstein, G.R., Martinelli, G.P., Boyle, R., Rabbitt, R.D., Highstein, S.M. (2004) Ultrastructural observations of efferent terminals in the crista Ampullaris of the toadfish. opsanus tau. Exp. Brain Res., 155, 265-273.
63. Holstein, G.R., Martinelli, G.P., Cohen, B. (1999) The ultrastructure of GABA-immunoreactive vestibular commissural neurons related to velocity storage in the monkey. Neuroscience, 93, 171-181.
64. Horii, A., Takeda, N., Matsunaga, A., Yamatodani, T., Mochizuki, K., Okakura-Mochizuki, K., Wada, H. (1993) Effect of unilateral vestibular stimulation on histamine release from hypothalamus of rats in vivo. J. Neurophysiol., 70, 1822-1826.
65. Housley, G.D., Norris, C.H., Guth, P.S. (1988) Histamine and related substances influence neurotransmission in the semicircular canal. Hear Res., 35, 87-98.
66. Irving, C., Richman, P., Kaiafas, C., Eskin, B., Allegra, J. (2002) Intramuscular droperidol versus intramuscular dimenhydrinate for the treatment of acute peripheral vertigo in the emergency department: a randomized clinical trial. Acad. Emerg. Med., 9, 650-653.
67. Ishiyama, A., López, I., Wackym, P.A. (1997) Molecular characterization of muscarinic receptors in the human vestibular periphery. Implications for pharmacotherapy. Am. J. Otol., 18, 648-654.
68. Jackson, R.T., Turner, J.S. (1987) Astemizole: its use in the treatment of patients with cronic vertigo. Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surgery, 113, 536-542.
69. Janowsky, D.S., Risch, S.C., Ziegler, M., Kennedy, B., Huey, L. (1984) A cholinomimetic model of motion sickness and space adaptation syndrome. Aviat. Space Environ. Med., 55, 692-696.
70. Jen, J.C., Graves, T.D., Hess, E.J., Hanna, M.G., Griggs, R.C., Baloh, R.W. (2007) Primary episodic ataxias: diagnosis, pathogenesis and treatment. Brain, 130, 2484-2493.
71. Johnson, W.H., Fenton, R.S., Evans, A. (1976) Effects of droperidol in management of vestibular disorders. Laryngoscope, 86, 946-954.
72. Kanashiro, A.M., Alexandre, P.L., Pereira, C.B., Melo, A.C., Scaff, M. (2005) Vestibular paroxysmia: clinical study and treatment of eight patients. Arq. Neuropsiquiatr., 63, 643-647.
73. Kataoka, Y., Ohmori, H. (1996) Of known neurotransmitters, glutamate is the most likely to be released from chick cochlear hair cells. J. Neurophysiol., 76, 1870-1879.
74. Kawabata, A., Sasa, M., Ujihara, H., Takaori, S. (1990) Inhibition by enkephalin of medial vestibular nucleus neurons responding to horizontal pendular rotation. Life Sci., 47, 1355-1363.
75. Kingma, H., Bonink, M., Meulenbroeks, A., Konjinenberg, H. (1997) Dose-dependent effect of betahistine on the vestibulo-ocular reflex: a double blind, placebo controlled study in patients with paroxysmal vertigo. Acta Otolaryngol., 117, 641-646.
76. Kirsten, E.B., Sharma, J.N. (1976) Microiontophoresis of acetylcholine, histamine and their antagonist on neuron on the medial and lateral vestibular nuclei of the cat. Neuropharmacology, 15, 743-753.
77. Knox, G.W., Woodard, D., Chelen, W., Ferguson, R., Johnson, L. (1994) Phenytoin for motion sickness: clinical evaluation. Laryngoscope, 104, 935-939.
78. Kroese, A.B.A., Das, A., Hudspeth, A.J. (1989) Blockage of the transduction channels of hair cells in the bullfrog's sacculus by aminoglycoside antibiotics. Hear Res., 37, 203-218.
79. Lacour, M. (2006) Restoration of vestibular function: basic aspects and practical advances for rehabilitation. Curr. Med. Res. Opin., 22, 1651-1659.
80. Lacour, M., Sterkers, O. (2001) Histamine and betahistine in the treatment of vertigo. CNS Drugs, 15, 853-870.
81. Lamm, K., Arnold, W. (2000) The effect of blood flow promoting drugs on cochlear blood flow, perilymphatic pO2 and auditory function in the normal and noise-damaged hypoxic and ischemic guinea pig inner ear. Hearing Res., 141, 199-219.
82. Landmark, C.J. (2007) Targets for antiepileptic drugs in the synapse. Med. Sci. Monit., 13, RA1-7.
83. Lassen, L.F., Hirsch, B.F., Kamerer, D.B. (1996) Use of nimodipine in the medical treatment of Meniere's disease: clinical experience. Am J Otol., 17, 577-580.
84. Leurs, R., Bakker, R.A., Timmerman, H., de Esch I.J. (2005) The histamine H3 receptor: from gene cloning to H3 receptor drugs. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov., 4, 107-120.
85. Limón, A., Pérez, C., Vega, R., Soto, E. (2005) IK,Ca current density is correlated with soma size in vestibular primary afferent neurons. J. Neurophysiol., 94, 3751-3761.
86. Linder, S., Borgeat, A., Biollaz, J. (1989) Meniere-like syndrome following epidural morphine analgesia. Anesthesiology, 71, 782-783.
87. Lioudyno, M.I., Verbitsky, M., Glowatzki, E., Holt, J.C., Boulter, J., Zadina, J.E., Elgoyhen, A.B., Guth, P.S. (2002) The alpha9/alpha10-containing nicotinic ACh receptor is directly modulated by opioid peptides, endomorphin-1, and dynorphin B, proposed efferent cotransmitters in the inner ear. Mol. Cell Neurosci., 20, 695-711.
88. Magnusson, A.K., Tham, R. (2003) Vestibulo-oculomotor behaviour in rats following a transient unilateral vestibular loss induced by lidocaine. Neuroscience, 120, 1105-1114.
89. Martí Massó, J.F., Martí, I., Carrera, N., Poza, J.J., López de Munain, A. (2005) Trimetazidine induces parkinsonism, gait disorders and tremor. Therapie, 60, 419-422.
90. Martínez, D.M. (1972) The effect of Serc (betahistine hydrochloride) on the circulation of the inner ear in experimental animals. Acta Otolaryngol., Suppl. 305, 29-47.
91. Martini, A., de Domenico F. (1990) Trimetazidine versus betahistine in Meniere's disease. A double blind study. Ann. Otolaryngol. Chir. Cervicofac., 107(Suppl 1), 20-27.
92. Matsuoka, I., Domino, E.F. (1975) Cholinergic mechanisms in the cat vestibular system. Neuropharmacology, 14, 201-210.
93. Matsuoka, I., Ito, J., Takahashi, H., Sasa, M., Takaori, S. (1984) Experimental vestibular pharmacology: a minireview with special reference to neuroactive substances and antivertigo drugs. Acta Otolaryngol., Suppl. 419, 62-70.
94. Meza, G. (2008) Modalities of GABA and glutamate neurotransmission in the vertebrate inner ear vestibule. Neurochem. Res., 33, 1634-1642.
95. 2+ currents in neonatal outer hair cells of mice. J. Physiol., 553, 747-758.
96. Minor, L.B., Schessel, D.A., Carey, J.P. (2004) Meniere's disease [review]. Curr. Opin. Neurol., 17, 9-16.
97. Mira, E., Guidetti, G., Ghilardi, L., Fattori, B., Malannino, N., Maiolino, L., Mora, R., Ottoboni, S., Pagnini, P., Leprini, M., Pallestrini, E., Passali, D., Nuti, D., Russolo, M., Tirelli, G., Simoncelli, C., Brizi, S., Vicini, C., Frasconi, P. (2003) Betahistine dihydrochloride in the treatment of peripheral vestibular vertigo. Eur. Arch. Otorhinolaryngol., 260, 73-77.
98. Mira, E. (2008) Improving the quality of life in patients with vestibular disorders: the role of medical treatments and physical rehabilitation. Int. J. Clin. Pract., 62, 109-114.
99. Morita, M., Takeda, N., Hasegawa, S., Yamatodani, A., Wada, H., Sakai, S., Kubo, T., Matsunaga, T. (1990) Effects of anticholinergic and cholinergic drugs on habituation to motion in rats. Acta Otolaryngol., 110, 196-202.
100. Nabatame, H., Sasa, M., Ohno, Y., Takaori, S., Kameyama, M. (1986) Activation of Lateral Vestibular Nucleus Neurons by lontophoretically Applied Phencyclidine. Jpn. J. Pharmacol., 42, 117-122.
101. Nachum, Z., Shupak, A., Gordon, C.R. (2006) Transdermal scopolamine for prevention of motion sickness: clinical pharmacokinetics and therapeutic applications. Clin. Pharmacokinet., 45, 543-566
102. Novotný, M., Kostrica, R. (2002) Fixed combination of cinnarizine and dimenhydrinate versus betahistine dimesylate in the treatment of Ménière's disease: a randomized, double-blind, parallel group clinical study. Int. Tinnitus J., 8, 115-123.
103. Oestreicher, E., Arnold, W., Ehrenberger, K., Felix, D. (1998) Memantine suppresses the glutamatergic neurotransmission of mammalian inner hair cells. J. Otorhinolaryngol. Relat. Spec., 60, 18-21.
104. Oliver, D., Ludwig, J., Reisinger, E., Zoellner, W., Ruppersberg, J.P., Fakler, B. (2001) Memantine inhibits efferent cholinergic transmission in the cochlea by blocking nicotinic acetylcholine receptors of outer hair cells. Mol. Pharmacol., 60, 183-189.
105. Pane-Pianese, C.P., Hidalgo, L.O.V., González, R.H., Madrid, C.E., Ponce, J.E.C., Ramírez, A.M., Moran, L.M., Arenas, J.E.P., Rubio, A.T.Y.G., Uribe, J.O., Abiuso, J., Hanuch, J., Alegria J, Volpi, J., Flaskamp, R., Sanjuan, A.P., Gómez, J.M.G., Hernández, J., Pedraza, A., Quijano, D., Martínez, C., Castañeda, J.R., Guerra, S.J.C., Valencia, G.F. (2002) New approaches to the management of peripheral vertigo: Efficacy and safety of two calcium antagonists in a 12-week, multinational, double-blind study. Otol. Neurotol., 23, 357-363.
106. Panula, P., Flugge, G., Fuchs, E., Pirvola, U., Auvinen, S., Airaksinen, M.S. (1989) Histamine-immunoreactive nerve fibers in the mammalian spinal cord. Brain Res., 484, 234-239.
107. Paul, M.A., MacLellan, M., Gray, G. (2005) Motion-sickness medications for aircrew: impact on psychomotor performance. Aviat. Space Environ. Med., 76, 560-565.
108. Perachio, A.A., Kevetter, G.A. (1989) Identification of vestibular efferent neurons in the gerbil: histochemical and retrograde labelling. Exp. Brain Res., 78, 315-326.
109. Pérez, M.E., Soto, E., Vega, R. (1991) Streptomycin blocks the postsynaptic effects of excitatory amino acids on the vestibular system primary afferents. Brain Res., 563, 221-226.
110. Pérez, C., Limón, A., Vega, R., Soto, E. (2009) The muscarinic inhibition of the potassium M-current modulates the action-potential discharge in the vestibular primary-afferent neurons of the rat. Neuroscience, 158, 1662-1674.
111. Pérez-Fernández, N., Vázques de la Iglesia F. (2003) Tratamiento médico del vértigo. Rev. Med. Univ. Navarra, 47, 60-63.
112. Perin, P., Soto, E., Vega, R., Botta, L., Masetto, S., Zucca, G., Valli, P. (2000) Calcium channels functional roles in the frog semi-circular canal. NeuroReport., 11, 417-420.
113. Plazas, P.V., Savino J, Kracun S, Gómez-Casati, M.E., Katz, E., Parsons, C.G., Millar, N.S., Elgoyhen, A.B. (2007) Inhibition of the alpha9-alpha10 nicotinic cholinergic receptor by neramexane, an open channel blocker of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors. Eur. J. Pharmacol., 566, 11-19.
114. Popper, P., Cristobal, R., Wackym, P.A. (2004) Expression and distribution of mu opioid receptors in the inner ear of the rat. Neuroscience, 129, 225-233.
115. Popper, P., Rodrigo, J.P., Álvarez, J.C., López, I., Honrubia, V. (1997) Expression of the AMPA-selective receptor subunits in the vestibular nuclei of the chinchilla. Mol. Brain Res., 44, 21-30.
116. Prigioni, I., Russo, G., Valli, P., Masetto, S. (1990) Pre-and post-synaptic excitatory action of glutamate agonist on frog vestibular receptors. Hear Res., 46, 253-260.
117. Rascol, O., Hain, T.C., Brefel, C., Benazet, M., Clanet, M., Montastruc, J.L. (1995) Antivertigo medications and drug-induced vertigo: A pharmacological review. Drugs, 50, 777-791.
118. Rassekh, C.H., Harker, L.A. (1992) The prevalence of migraine in Ménière's disease. Laryngoscope, 102, 135-138.
119. Renner, U., Oertel, R., Kirch, W. (2005) Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics in clinical use of scopolamine. Ther. Drug Monit., 27, 655-665.
120. Rodríguez, U., Carrillo, E., Soto, E. (2005) Cannabinoides: neuro-biología y usos médicos. Elementos, 60, 3-9.
121. Ryan, A.F., Simmons, D.M., Watts, A.G., Swanson, L.W. (1991) Enkephalin mRNA production by cochlear and vestibular efferent neurons in the gerbil brainstem. Exp. Brain Res., 87, 259-267.
122. Sakata, E., Nakazawa, H., Iwashita, N. (1984) Therapy of tinnitus. Tympanic cavity infusion of lidocaine and steroid solution. Auris Nasus Larynx., 11, 11-18.
123. Scholtz, A.W., Schwarz, M., Baumann, W., Kleinfeldt, D., Scholtz, H.J. (2004) Treatment of vertigo due to acute unilateral vestibular loss with a fixed combination of cinnarizine and dimenhydrinate: a double-blind, randomized, parallel-group clinical study. Clin Ther., 26, 866-877.
124. Schuerger, R.J., Balaban, C.D. (1999) Organization of the coeruleo-vestibular pathway in rats, rabbits, and monkeys. Brain Res. Rev., 30, 189-217.
125. Sekitani, T., McCabe, B.F., Ryu, J.H. (1971) Drug effects on the medial vestibular nucleus. Arch. Otolaryngol., 93, 581-589.
126. Serafin, M., Khateb, A., de Waele, C., Vidal, P.P., Mühlethaler, M. (1990) Low threshold calcium spikes in medial vestibular nuclei neurones in vitro: a role in the generation of the vestibular nystagmus quick phase in vivo? Exp. Brain Res., 82, 187-190.
127. Serafin, M., de Waele, C., Khateb, A., Vidal, P.P., Mühlethaler, M. (1991) Medial vestibular nucleus in the guinea-pig: II. Ionic basis of the intrinsic membrane properties in brainstem slices. Exp. Brain Res., 84, 426-433.
128. Seidman, M.D., Van de Water, T.R. (2003) Pharmacologic manipulation of the labyrinth with novel and traditional agents delivered to the inner ear. Ear, Nose Throat J., 82, 276-288.
129. Sivet, J., de la Gastine, B., Mosquet, B., Lescure, P., Boutemy, J., Le Boisselier, R., Coquerel, A. (2008) Trimetazidine-induced encephalopathy with choreiform disorders: A case report. Rev. Med. Intern., 29, 512-515.
130. Smith, P.F., Darlington, C.L. (1997) The contribution of N-methyl-daspartate receptors to lesion-induced plasticity in the vestibular nucleus. Prog. Neurobiol., 53, 517-531.
131. Smith, P.F, Darlington, C.L. (1996) Recent advances in the pharmacology of the vestibulo-ocular reflex system. Trends Pharmacol. Sci., 17, 421-427.
132. Smith, P.F., Ashton, J.C., Darlington, C.L. (2006) The endocannabinoid system: A new player in the neurochemical control of vestibular function? Audiol. Neurootol., 11, 207-212.
133. Smith, P.F., Zheng, Y., Paterson, S., Darlington, C.L. (2001) The contribution of nitric oxide to vestibular compensation: are there species differences? Acta Otolaryngol., Suppl. 545, 57-60.
134. Smith, W.K., Sankar, V., Pfleiderer, A.G. (2005) A national survey amongst UK otolaryngologists regarding the treatment of Meniere's disease. J. Laryngol. Otol., 119, 102-105.
135. Smith, M.R., Nelson, A.B., Du Lac, S. (2002) Regulation of firing response gain by calcium-dependent mechanisms in vestibular nucleus neurons. J. Neurophysiol., 87, 2031-2042.
136. Soto, E., Limón, A., Ortega, A., Vega, R. (2002) Características morfológicas y electrofisiológicas de las neuronas del ganglio vestibular en cultivo. Gaceta Méd. México., 138, 1-14.
137. Soto, E., Vega, R. (1988) Actions of excitatory aminoacid agonists and antagonists on the primary afferents of the vestibular system of the axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum). Brain Res., 462, 104-111.
138. Soto, E., Chávez, H., Valli, P., Benvenuti, C., Vega, R. (2001) Betahistine produces a postsynaptic inhibition on the excitability of the primary afferent neurons in the vestibular endorgans. Acta Otolaryngol., Suppl. 121, 19-24.
139. Soto, E., Flores, A., Erostegui, C., Vega, R. (1994) Evidence for NMDA receptor in the afferent synaptic transmission of the vestibular system. Brain Res., 633, 289-296.
140. Soto, E., Pérez, C., Limón, A., Chávez, H., Vega, R. (2004) M Current in Vestibular Afferent Neurons from the Rat. J. Vest. Res., 14, 190.
141. Spinks, A.B., Wasiak, J., Villanueva, E.V., Bernath, V. (2007) Scopolamine (hyoscine) for preventing and treating motion sickness. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev., 18, CD002851.
142. Stahl, J.S., Rottach, K.G., Averbuch-Heller, L., Maydell, R.D., Collins, S.D., Leigh, R.J. (1996) A pilot study of gabapentin as treatment for acquired nystagmus. Neuro-ophthalmology, 16, 107-113.
143. Straube, A. (2005) Pharmacology of vertigo/nystagmus/oscillopsia. Curr. Opin. Neurol., 18, 11-14.
144. Strupp, M., Schüler, O., Krafczyk, S., Jahn, K., Schautzer, F., Büttner, U., Brandt, T. (2003) Treatment of downbeat nystagmus with 3,4-diaminopyridine: a placebo-controlled study. Neurology, 61, 165-170.
145. Strupp, M., Brandt, T. (2006) Pharmacological advances in the treatment of neuro-otological and eye movement disorders. Curr. Opin. Neurol., 19, 33-40.
146. Sulaiman, M.R., Dutia, M.B. (1998) Opioid inhibition of rat medial vestibular nucleus neurones in vitro and its dependence on age. Exp. Brain Res., 122, 196-202.
147. Sulaiman, M.R., Niklasson, M., Tham, R., Dutia, M.B. (1999) Modulation of vestibular function by nociceptin/orphanin FQ: an in vivo and in vitro study. Brain Res., 828, 74-82.
148. Takahashi, Y., Tsumoto, T., Kubo, T. (1994) N-Methyl-d-aspartate receptors contribute to afferent synaptic transmission in the medial vestibular nucleus of young rats. Brain Res., 659, 287-291.
149. Tighilet, B., Lacour, M. (1998) Distribution of choline acetyltransferase immunoreactivity in the vestibular nuclei of normal and unilateral vestibular neurectomized cats. Eur. J. Neurosci., 10, 3115-3126.
150. Tighilet, B., Trottier, S., Lacour, M. (2005) Dose- and duration-dependent effects of betahistine dihydrochloride treatment on histamine turnover in the cat. Eur. J. Pharmacol., 523, 54-63.
151. Tighilet, B., Lacour, M. (1996) Distribution of histamine axonal fibres in the vestibular nuclei in the cat. Neuroreport, 7, 873-878.
152. 2+ concentration in guinea pig isolated vestibular hair cells. Acta Otolaryngol., Suppl. 528, 37-40.
153. Tritto, S., Botta, L., Zampini, V., Zucca, G., Valli, P., Masetto, S. (2009) Calyx and dimorphic neurons of mouse Scarpa's ganglion express histamine H3 receptors. BMC Neurosci., 10, 70.
154. Valli, P., Caston, J., Zucca, G. (1984) Local mechanisms in vestibular receptor control. Effects of curare on the EPSPs and spike discharge recorded from single afferent fibres of the posterior canal nerve of the frog. Acta Otolaryngol., 97, 611-618.
155. Varoli, L., Andreani, A., Burnelli, S., Granaiola, M., Leoni, A., Locatelli, A., Morigi, R., Rambaldi, M., Bedini, A., Fazio, N., Spampinato, S. (2008) Diphenidol-related diamines as novel muscarinic M4 receptor antagonists. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett., 18, 2972-2976.
156. Vega, R., Soto, E. (2003) Opioid peptide receptors mediates an inhibitory presynaptic and excitatory postsynaptic input to the vestibulat afferent neurons. Neuroscience, 118, 75-85.
157. Vega, R., Soto, E., Budelli R., González Estrada, M.T. (1987) Is GABA an afferent transmitter in the vestibular system ? Hear Res., 29, 169-178.
158. Vidal, P.P., Babalian, A., de Waele, C., Serafin, M., Vibert, N., Mühlethaler, M. (1996) NMDA receptors of the vestibular nuclei neurones. Brain Res Bull., 40, 347-352.
159. Wackym, P.A., Popper, P., López, I., Ishiyama, A., Micevych, P.E. (1995) Expression of alpha 4 and beta 2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunit mRNA and localization of alpha-bungarotoxin binding proteins in the rat vestibular periphery. Cell Biol. Int., 19, 291-300.
160. Wackym, P.A., Chen, C.T., Ishiyama, A., Pettis, R.M., López, I.A., Hoffman, L. (1996) Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor subtype mRNA in the human and rat vestibular periphery. Cell Biol. Intern., 20, 187-192.
161. Walberg, F., Ottersen, O.P., Rinvik, E. (1990) GABA, glycine, aspartate, glutamate and taurine in the vestibular nuclei: an immunocytochemical investigation in the cat. Exp. Brain Res., 79, 547-563.
162. Wang, J.J., Dutia, M.B. (1995) Effects of histamine and betahistine on rat medial vestibular nucleus neurones: possible mechanism of action of anti-histaminergic drugs in vertigo and motion sickness. Exp. Brain Res., 105, 18-24.
163. Wood, C.D., Graybiel, A. (1973) The antimotion sickness drugs. Otolaryngol. Clin North Am., 6, 301-313.
164. Yacobino, D.A., Hain, T.C. (2004) Farmacología de las alteraciones vestibulares. Rev. Neurol., 39, 381-387.
165. Yamanaka, T., Him, A., Cameron, S.A., Dutia, M.B. (2000) Rapid compensatory changes in GABA receptor efficacy in rat vestibular neurones after unilateral labyrinthectomy. J. Physiol., 523, 413-424.
166. Zajonc, T.P., Roland, P.S. (2005) Vertigo and motion sickness. Part II: Pharmacologic treatment. Ear Nose Throat J., 85, 25-35.
167. Zee, D.S. (1985) Mechanisms of nystagmus. Am J Otol. Suppl: 30-34
168. Zhang, J., Han, X.H., Li, H.Z., Zhu, J.N., Wang, J.J. (2008) Histamine excites rat lateral vestibular nuclear neurons through activation of post-synaptic H2 receptors. Neurosci. Lett., 448, 15-19.
169. Zheng, Y., Hooton, K., Smith, P.F., Darlington, C.L. (2007) Carbamazepine reduces the behavioural manifestations of tinnitus following salicylate treatment in rats. Acta Otolaryngol., 22, 1-5.