The effect of blood flow promoting drugs on cochlear blood flow, perilymphatic pO2 and auditory function in the normal and noise-damaged hypoxic and ischemic guinea pig inner ear

Hearing Research

Volumn 141, Issue 1-2, 2000, Pages 199-219

  Lamm, Kerstin ^a   Arnold, Wolfgang ^a  

^a Medizinische Klinik Rechts der Isar   (Germany)

Author keywords

Acoustic nerve; Auditory brain stem; Betahistine; Cochlea; Cochlear blood flow; Cochlear microphonic potential; Compound action potential; Drug effect; Electrocochleography; Evoked potential; Ginkgo biloba; Guinea pig; Hearing loss, noise induced; Hemodilution; Hydroxyethyl starch; Hypoxia; Ischemia; Laser Doppler flowmetry; Naftidrofuryl; Oxygen; Pentoxifylline; Perilymph; Vasodilator

Indexed keywords

EXPAFUSIN; GINKGO BILOBA EXTRACT; HETASTARCH; NAFTIDROFURYL OXALATE; PENTOXIFYLLINE; SODIUM CHLORIDE; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; VASODILATOR AGENT; VASOMOTAL;

ACTION POTENTIAL; ANIMAL EXPERIMENT; ANIMAL MODEL; CARDIOVASCULAR PARAMETERS; COCHLEA BLOOD FLOW; COCHLEA POTENTIAL; COCHLEAR NERVE; CONTROLLED STUDY; DOPPLER FLOWMETER; ELECTROCOCHLEOGRAPHY; EVOKED AUDITORY RESPONSE; EVOKED BRAIN STEM RESPONSE; FEMALE; GUINEA PIG; HEARING; HEARING LOSS; HEMODILUTION; HYPOXIA; ISCHEMIA; MALE; NOISE INJURY; NONHUMAN; OXYGEN TENSION; PERILYMPH; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW;

EID: 0034005626     PISSN: 03785955     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0378-5955(00)00005-8     Document Type: Article

References (120)

1. Attias, J. and Bresloff, I., 1999. Oral magnesium reduces noise induced temporary and permanent hearing loss. In: Prasher, D. and Canlon, B. (Eds.), Cochlear Pharmacology and Noise Trauma. Proceedings of the Joint Symposium organised by the European Commission Concerted Action Protection Against Noise § The Novartis Foundation, Noise Research Network Publications, London (ISBN: 190174700 X), pp. 43-53.
2. d'Aldin C., Puel J.L., Leducq R., Crambes O., Eybalin M., Pujol R. Effects of a dopaminergic agonist in the guinea pig cochlea. Hear. Res. 90:1995;202-211.
3. d'Aldin, C., Cherny, L. and Dancer, A., 1999. Medical treatment for acoustic trauma. In: Prasher, D. and Canlon, B. (Eds.), Cochlear Pharmacology and Noise Trauma. Proceedings of the Joint Symposium organised by the European Commission Concerted Action Protection Against Noise § The Novartis Foundation, Noise Research Network Publications, London (ISBN: 190174700 X), pp. 54-72.
4. 3-receptor and control of histamine release. In: Schwartz, J.C. and Haas, H.L. (Eds.), The Histamine Receptors. Wiley-Liss, New York, pp. 145-166.
5. Axelsson A., Nuttall A.L., Miller J.M. Observations of cochlear microcirculation using intravital microscopy. Acta Otolaryngol. 109:1990;263-270.
6. Axelsson, A., Borchgrevink, H.M., Hamernik, R.P., Hellström, P.A., Henderson, D. and Salvi, R.J., 1996. Scientific Basis of Noise-Induced Hearing Loss. Thieme, New York.
7. Babe, K.S. and Serafin, W.E., 1996. Histamine, bradykinin, and their antagonists. In: Hardman, J.G., Limbird, L.E., Molinoff, P.B., Ruddon, R.W. and Goodman Gilman, A. (Eds.), Goodman and Gilman's the Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. 9th edn., McGraw-Hill, New York, pp. 581-600.
8. Baldwin D.L., Ohlsen K.A., Miller J.M., Nuttall A.L. Cochlear blood flow and microvascular resistance changes in response to hypertonic glycerol, urea, and mannitol infusions. Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol. 101:1992;168-175.
9. Boettcher F.A. Diltiazem does not protect the ear from noise-induced hearing loss in mongolian gerbils. Laryngoscope. 106:1996;772-776.
10. Boettcher F.A., Caldwell R.K., Gratton M.A., White D.R., Miles L.R. Effects of nimodipine on noise-induced hearing loss. Hear. Res. 121:1998;139-146.
11. Borg E., Canlon B., Engström B. Noise-induced hearing loss. Literature review and experiments in rabbits. Scand. Audiol. Suppl. 40:1995;1-147.
12. Braquet P., Hosford D. Ethnopharmacology and the development of natural PAF antagonists as therapeutic agents. J. Ethnopharmacol. 32:1991;135-139.
13. Brown J.N., Nuttall A.L. Autoregulation of cochlear blood flow in guinea pigs. Am. J. Physiol. 266:1994;H458-H467.
14. Bruynzeel I., Stoof T.J., Willemze R. Pentoxifylline and skin inflammation. Clin. Exp. Dermatol. 23:1998;168-172.
15. 3-receptors and pharmacology of betahistine. Acta Otolaryngol. Suppl. 526:1997;43-46.
16. Clostre, F. and DeFeudis, F.V., 1994. Advances in Ginkgo biloba Extract Research. Vol 3, Cardiovascular effects of ginkgo biloba extract (Egb 761). Elsevier, Amsterdam.
17. Coleman J.K.M., Quirk W.S., Dengerink H.A., Wright J.W. Pentoxifylline increases cochlear blood flow while decreasing blood pressure in guinea pigs. Hear. Res. 47:1990;169-174.
18. Coleman J.K.M., Dengerink H.A., Wright J.W. Effects of hydroxyethyl starch, nimodipine, and propylene glycol on cochlear blood flow. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 105:1991;840-844.
19. DeFeudis, F.V., 1998. Ginkgo biloba Extract (EGb 761). From Chemistry to the Clinic. Ullstein Medical, Wiesbaden.
20. Dengerink H.A., Axelsson A., Miller J.M., Wright J.W. The effect of noise and carbogen on cochlear vasculature. Acta Otolaryngol. 98:1984;81-88.
21. Didier A., Droy-Lefaix M.T., Aurousseau C., Cazals Y. Effects of ginkgo biloba extract (Egb 761) on cochlear vasculature in the guinea pig: morphometric measurements and laser Doppler flowmetry. Eur. Arch. Otorhinolaryngol. 253:1996;25-30.
22. Ehrly A.M. Beeinflussung der Verformbarkeit der Erythrozyten durch Pentoxifyllin. (Influencing the deformability of erythrocytes through pentoxiphyllin.). Med. Welt. 26:1975;2300-2301.
23. Ehrly A.M. Improvement of the flow properties of blood: a new therapeutical approach in occlusive arterial disease. Angiology. 24:1976;188-196.
24. Ehrly A.M. The effect of pentoxifylline on the flow properties of human blood. Curr. Med. Res. Opin. 5:1978;608-613.
25. Ehrly A.M. The effect of pentoxifylline on the deformability of erythrocytes and on the muscular oxygen pressure in patients with chronic arterial disease. J. Med. 10:1979;331-338.
26. Ehrly, A.M., 1989. Therapeutische Hämorheologie. Springer, Berlin.
27. Ehrly A.M. Drugs that alter blood viscosity. Their role in therapy. Drugs. 39:1990;155-159.
28. 2) of patients with intermittend claudication before and after pedal ergometer exercise. Angiology. 38:1987;93-100.
29. Ely H. Is pentoxifylline the drug of the decade? J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 30:1994;639-642.
30. Ernst, E., 1989. Hämorheologie. Theorie, Klinik, Therapie. Schattauer, Stuttgart.
31. Ernst E. Pentoxifylline for intermittent claudication. A critical review. Angiology. 45:1994;339-345.
32. Galioto G.B., Mevio E., Castelnuovo P., Galioto P., Benazzo M. Ètude par vélocimétrie au laser-Doppler des modifications de la microcirculation labyrinthique induites par des stimuli chimiques et physiques. (A study using laser-Doppler velocimetry of modifications of the labyrinthine microcirculation induced by chemical and physical stimuli.). Ann. Otolaryngol. Chir. Cervicofac. 106:1989;117-122.
33. Gil-Loyzaga, P., Poch-Broto, J., Vicente-Torres, A., Bartolomé, V., Carricondo, F., San Roman, J. and Jiménez, L., 1999. GABA, dopamine and serotonin in cochlear innervation. Models of protection against neurotoxicity. In: Prasher, D. and Canlon, B. (Eds.), Cochlear Pharmacology and Noise Trauma. Proceedings of the Joint Symposium organised by the European Commission Concerted Action Protection Against Noise § The Novartis Foundation, Noise Research Network Publications, London (ISBN: 190174700 X), pp. 23-40.
34. Goldwyn B.G., Quirk W.S. Calcium channel blockade reduces noise-induced vascular permeability in cochlear stria vascularis. Laryngoscope. 107:1997;1112-1116.
35. Goldwyn B., Khan M.J., Shivapuja B.G., Seidman M.D., Quirk W.S. Sarthran preserves cochlear microcirculation and reduces temporary threshold shifts after noise exposure. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 118:1998;576-583.
36. Hatch M., Tsai M., LaRouere M.J., Nuttall A.L., Miller J.M. The effects of carbogen, carbon dioxide, and oxygen on noise-induced hearing loss. Hear. Res. 56:1991;265-272.
37. Henderson, D., McFadden, S.L., Zheng, X.Y., Kopke, R. and Hight, N., 1999. Intervention possibilities for noise induced hearing loss. In: Prasher, D. and Canlon, B. (Eds.), Cochlear Pharmacology and Noise Trauma. Proceedings of the Joint Symposium organised by the European Commission Concerted Action Protection Against Noise § The Novartis Foundation, Noise Research Network Publications, London (ISBN: 190174700 X), pp. 85-97.
38. Henry K.R. Noise-induced auditory loss: influence of genotype, naloxone and methyl-prednisolone. Acta Otolaryngol. (Stockh.). 112:1992;599-603.
39. Hildesheimer M., Muchnik C., Rubinstein M. Iontophoresis with an adrenergic α-blocker in acoustic overstimulation. Eur. Arch. Otorhinolaryngol. 247:1990;345-347.
40. Hill S.J., Ganellin C.R., Timmerman H., Schwartz J.C., Shankley N.P., Young J.M., Schunack W., Levi R., Haas H.L. International Union of Pharmacology. XIII. Classification of histamine receptors. Pharmacol. Rev. 49:1997;253-278.
41. Hu B.H., Zheng X.Y., McFadden S.L., Kopke R.D., Henderson D. R-phenyl-isopropyl-adenosine attenuates noise-induced hearing loss in the chinchilla. Hear. Res. 113:1997;198-206.
42. Hu Z.Y., Shi X.F., Liang Z.F., Tang Z.W., Jin X.Q. The protective effect of hyperbaric oxygen on hearing during chronic noise exposure. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 62:1991;403-406.
43. Hultcrantz E., Nuttall A.L. Effect of hemodilution on cochlear blood flow measured by laser-Doppler flowmetry. Am. J. Otolaryngol. 8:1987;16-22.
44. 3) of histamine receptors on perivascular nerve terminals. Nature. 327:1987;158-160.
45. Ison J.R., Payman G.H., Palmer M.J., Walton J.P. Nimodipine at a dose that slows ABR latencies dies not protect the ear against noise. Hear. Res. 106:1997;179-183.
46. Keithley E.M., Ma C.L., Ryan A.F., Louis J.C., Magal E. GDNF protects the cochlea against noise damage. Neuroreport. 9:1998;2183-2187.
47. Kellerhals B. Acoustic trauma and cochlear microcirculation. An experimental and clinical study on the pathogenesis and treatment of inner ear lesions after acute noise exposure. Adv. Otorhinolaryngol. 18:1972;91-168.
48. Kellerhals B. Perilymph production and cochlear blood flow. Acta Otolaryngol. 87:1979;370-374.
49. Kleijnen J., Knipschild P. Ginkgo biloba. Lancet. 340:1992;1136-1139.
50. Koscielny, J., Kiesewetter, H., Jung, F. and Haass, A., 1991. Hämodilution. Springer, Berlin.
51. Kuokkanen J., Virkkala J., Zhai S., Ylikoski J. Effect of hyperbaric oxygen treatment on permanent threshold shift in acoustic trauma among rats. Acta Otolaryngol. Suppl. 529:1997;80-82.
52. Lacour, M., 1998. Histamine. Vestibular Function and Vestibular Compensation. Elsevier, Paris.
53. Lamm K., Arnold W. Noise-induced cochlear hypoxia is intensity dependent, correlates with hearing loss and precedes reduction of cochlear blood flow. Audiol. Neurootol. 1:1996;148-160.
54. Lamm K., Arnold W. The effect of prednisolone and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents on the normal and noise-damaged guinea pig inner ear. Hear. Res. 115:1998;149-161.
55. Lamm, K. and Arnold, W., 1999. Therapeutic strategies for improving cochlear blood flow. In: Prasher, D. and Canlon, B. (Eds.), Cochlear Pharmacology and Noise Trauma. Proceedings of the Joint Symposium organised by the European Commission Concerted Action Protection Against Noise § The Novartis Foundationm, Noise Research Network Publications, London (ISBN: 190174700 X), pp. 150-165.
56. Lamm K., Arnold W. Successful treatment of noise-induced cochlear ischemia, hypoxia and hearing loss. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 884:1999;233-249.
57. Lamm, K. and Arnold, W., 1999. How useful is corticoid treatment in cochlear disorders? Otorhinolaryngol. Nova 9 (in press).
58. Lamm K., Lamm C., Arnold W. Effect of isobaric oxygen versus hyperbaric oxygen on the normal and noise-damaged hypoxic and ischemic guinea pig inner ear. Adv. Otorhinolaryngol. 54:1998;59-85.
59. LaRouere M.J., Sillman J.S., Tsai M.T., Nuttall A.L. The effect of pentoxifylline on cochlear blood flow. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 105:1991;87-91.
60. Latoni J., Shivapuja B., Seidman M.D., Quirk W.S. Pentoxifylline maintains cochlear microcirculation and attenuates temporary threshold shifts following acoustic overstimulation. Acta Otolaryngol. 116:1996;388-394.
61. Laurikainen E., Miller J.M., Quirk W.S., Kallinen J., Ren T., Nuttall A.L., Grénman R., Virolainen E. Betahistine-induced vascular effects in the rat cochlea. Am. J. Otol. 14:1993;24-30.
62. Laurikainen E., Miller J.M., Nuttall A.L., Quirk W.S. The vascular mechanism of action of betahistine in the inner ear of the guinea pig. Eur. Arch. Otorhinolaryngol. 255:1998;119-123.
63. 3 receptor agonists and antagonists. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 19:1998;177-183.
64. Maass B., Ludwig D. Wasserstoff-Clearance-Messungen an der Cochleabasis unter akuter Schallbelastung. (Hydrogen clearance measurements of the base of the cochlea under acute noise exposure.). Arch. Otorhinolaryngol. Suppl. 2:1983;163-166.
65. ®) on cochlear blood flow as measured by hydrogen wash-out. Curr. Med. Res. Opin. 9:1984;52-55.
66. 2-measurements with needle electrodes for the examination of the oxygen maintanance and microcirculation of the cochlea.). Arch. Otorhinolaryngol. 214:1976;109-124.
67. ®) on basal cochlear blood flow measured by hydrogen wash-out under hypotensive ischemia.). Extr. Otorhinolaryngol. 9:1987;169-172.
68. Mandell G.L. Cytokines, phagocytes, and pentoxifylline. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 25:(Suppl. 2):1995;S20-S22.
69. Mann W., Pilgramm M., Loehle E., Beck C. Calciumantagonisten und die Schädigung des Cortischen Organs bei Knalltrauma. (Calcium antagonists and damage to the organ of Corti in acoustic trauma.). HNO. 35:1987;203-207.
70. Martinez D.M. The effect of serc (betahistine hydrochloride) on the circulation of the inner ear in experimental animals. Acta Otolaryngol. Suppl. 305:1972;29-47.
71. 2+ antagonistic in noise-induced hearing loss in animal experiment.). HNO. 41:1993;192-197.
72. Maurer J., Riechelmann H., Amedee R.G., Mann W.J. Diltiazem for prevention of acoustical trauma during otologic surgery. ORL J. Otorhinolaryngol. Relat. Spec. 57:1995;319-324.
73. Meyer P., Schmidt R., Gruetzmacher W., Gehrig W. Die Innenohrdurchblutung unter Betahistin - eine Tierexperimentelle Studie. (Inner ear blood flow with betahistine - an experimental study.). Laryngorhinootologie. 73:1994;153-156.
74. Meyer P., Werner E., Ising H., Gehring W., Schmidt R., Wessel F., Grützmacher W. Zum Einfluss oraler Magnesiumzufuhr auf die Prävention lärminduzierter Innenohrschwerhörigkeit beim Meerschweinchen. Magnes Bull. 18:1996;100-113.
75. Michel O., Steinmann R., Walger M., Stennert E. Die medikamentöse Beeinflussung der Innenohrfunktion in einem neuen Lärmschädigungsmodell. (A new model of repetitive noise damage for the evaluation of drugs influencing the inner ear function.). Otorhinolaryngol. Nova. 3:1993;292-297.
76. Michel O., Walger M., Schrott-Fischer A. Effects of prostacyclin on hearing recovery after repetitive noise and on histomorphology of the inner ear in the guinea pig. ORL. 59:1994;305-309.
77. Miller J.M., Dengerink H. Control of inner ear blood flow. Am. J. Otolaryngol. 9:1988;302-316.
78. Miller, J.M. and Nuttall, A.L., 1990. Cochlear blood flow. In: Sheperd, A.P. and Öberg, P.A. (Eds.), Laser-Doppler Blood Flowmetry. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, MA, pp. 319-347.
79. Miller J.M., Ren T.Y., Nuttall A.L. Studies of inner ear blood flow in animals and human beings. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 112:1995;101-113.
80. Miller, J.M., Ren, T.-Y., Dengerink, H.A. and Nuttall, A.L., 1996. Cochlear blood flow changes with short sound stimulation. In: Axelsson, A., Borchgrevink, H.M., Hamernik, R.P., Hellström, P.A., Henderson, D. and Salvi, R.J. (Eds.), Scientific Basis of Noise-Induced Hearing Loss. Thieme Medical Press, New York, pp. 95-109.
81. Nakashima T., Nuttall A.L., Miller J.M. Effects of vasodilating agents on cochlear blood flow in mice. Hear. Res. 80:1994;241-246.
82. Nuttall A.L., Hultcrantz E., Larsen H.C., Angelborg C. Cochlear blood flow increases after systemic hemodilution: comparison of simultaneous laser Doppler flowmetry and radioactive microsphere measurements. Hear. Res. 34:1988;215-224.
83. Oferpichler-Schwenk H., Krieglstein J. Pharmakologische Wirkungen von Ginkgo biloba-Extrakt und Inhaltsstoffen. (Pharmacologic actions of ginkgo biloba extract and contents.). Pharm. Unserer Zeit. 21:1992;224-235.
84. O'Hara M., Kiefer D., Farrell K., Kemper K. A review of 12 commonly used medicinal herbs. Arch. Fam. Med. 7:1998;523-536.
85. Ohinata Y., Makimoto K., Takahashi H. Effects of pentoxifylline and nitroprusside on guinea pig cochlear blood flow in relationship to various hematocrit values. Eur. Arch. Otorhinolaryngol. 253:1996;345-350.
86. Okamoto A., Tamura T., Hasegawa M., Togawa T. Effect of vasodilating agents on cochlear blood flow under loud sound exposure. Acta Otolaryngol. 110:1990;394-398.
87. Prasher, D. and Canlon, B., 1999. Cochlear Pharmacology and Noise Trauma. Proceedings of the Joint Symposium organised by the European Commission Concerted Action Protection Against Noise § The Novartis Foundation, Noise Research Network Publications, London, (ISBN: 190174700 X).
88. Preckel M.P., Degoute C.S., Dubreuil C., Boulud B., Tassard A.M., Banssillon V. Les effets du buflomedil et du naftidrofuryl sur la microcirculation cochleaire humaine mesuree par laser Doppler. (Effects of buflomedil and naftidrofuryl on the human cochlear microcirculation measured by laser Doppler.). Rev. Laryngol. Otol. Rhinol. Bord. 116:1995;69-72.
89. Probst R., Tschopp K., Ludin E., Kellerhals B., Podvinec M., Pfaltz C.R. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of dextran/pentoxifylline medication in acute acoustic trauma and sudden hearing loss. Acta Otolaryngol. 112:1992;435-443.
90. Puschner B., Schacht J. Energy metabolism in cochlear outer hair cells in vitro. Hear. Res. 114:1997;102-106.
91. Quirk W.S., Dengerink H.A., Bademian M.J., Hall K.W., Wright J.W. The effects of pentoxifylline in normotensive and spontaneously hypertensive rats. Hear. Res. 36:1988;175-180.
92. Quirk W.S., Dengerink H.A., Bademian M.J., Wright J.W. Mannitol and dextran increase cochlear blood flow in normotensive and spontaneously hypertensive rats. Acta Otolaryngol. 109:1990;383-388.
93. Quirk W.S., Shivapuja B.G., Schwimmer C.L., Seidman M.D. Lipid peroxidation inhibitor attenuates noise-induced temporary threshold shifts. Hear. Res. 74:1994;217-220.
94. Rascol O., Hain T.C., Brefel C., Benazet M., Clanet M., Montastruc J.L. Antivertigo medications and drug-induced vertigo: a pharmacological review. Drugs. 5:1995;777-791.
95. Samlaska C.P., Winfield E.A. Pentoxifylline. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 30:1994;603-621.
96. Saunders J.C., Cohen Y.E., Szymko Y.M. The structural and functional consequences of acoustic injury in the cochlea and peripheral auditory system: A five year update. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 90:1991;136-146.
97. Scheibe, F. and Haupt, H., 1997. Protective effects of magnesium on inner ear blood flow in the acoustic trauma. Animal studies. In: Theophanides, T. and Anastassopoulou, J. (Eds.), Magnesium: Current Status and New Developments. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp. 367-370.
98. Scheibe, F., Haupt, H. and Ising, H., 1999. Preventive effect of magnesium supplement on noise-induced hearing loss in the guinea pig. Eur. Arch. Otorhinolaryngol. 256 (in press).
99. Schneider W., Gjuric M., Katalinic A., Buhr W., Wolf S.R. The value of methylprednisolone in the treatment of an experimental sensorineural hearing loss following drill-induced ossicular chain injury: a randomized, blinded study in guinea-pigs. Acta Otolaryngol. 118:1998;52-55.
100. Seidman M.D., Shivapuja B.G., Quirk W.S. The protective effects of allopurinol and superoxide dismutase on noise-induced cochlear damage. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 109:1993;1052-1056.
101. Sillman J.S., LaRouere M.J., Nuttall A.L., Miller J.M., Lawrence M. Recent advances in cochlear blood flow measurements. Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol. 97:1988;1-8.
102. Smith P.F., Maclennan K., Darlington C.L. The neuroprotective properties of the ginkgo biloba leaf: a review of the possible relationship to platelet-activating factor (PAF). J. Ethnopharmacol. 50:1996;131-139.
103. Stange G., Benning C.D. Beeinflussung des Akustischen Traumas durch einen Ginkgo biloba-Extrakt. (The influence of sound damages by an extract of ginkgo biloba.). Arch. Otorhinolaryngol. 209:1975;203-215.
104. Stange G., Benning C.D., Degenhardt M., Ottinger E. Adaptationsverhalten peripherer und zentraler akustischer Reizantworten des Meerschweinchens unter dem Einfluss verschiedener Fraktionen eines Extraktes aus Ginkgo biloba. (Adaptional behaviour of peripheral and central responses in guinea pigs under the influence of various fractions of an extract from ginkgo biloba.). Arzneim. Forsch. 26:1976;367-374.
105. Suga F., Snow J.B. Cochlear blood flow in response to vasodilating drugs and some related agents. Laryngoscope. 79:1969;1956-1979.
106. Takahashi K., Kusakari J., Kimura S., Wada T., Hara A. The effect of methylprednisolone on acoustic trauma. Acta Otolaryngol. 116:1996;209-212.
107. Timmerman H. Histamine agonists and antagonists. Acta Otolaryngol. Suppl. 479:1991;5-11.
108. Timmerman H. Pharmacotherapy of vertigo: any news to be expected? Acta Otolaryngol. Suppl. 513:1994;28-32.
109. Treib J., Haass A. Rheologische Eigenschaften von Hydroxyethylstärke. (The rheological properties of hydroxyethyl starch.). Dtsch. Med. Wochenschr. 122:1997;1319-1322.
110. Vanhoutte P.M. Vascular effects of serotonin and ischemia. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 16:(Suppl. 3):1990;S15-S19.
111. Wang J., Ding D., Shulman A., Stracher A., Salvi R.J. Leupeptin protects sensory hair cells from acoustic trauma. Neuroreport. 10:1999;811-816.
112. Wangemann, P. and Schacht, J., 1996. Homeostatic mechanisms in the cochlea. In: Dallos, P., Popper, A.N. and Fay, R.R. (Eds.), The Cochlea. Springer Handbook of Auditory Research. Vol. 8, Springer, New York, pp. 130-185.
113. Ward A., Clissold S.P. Pentoxifylline: a review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties, and its therapeutic efficacy. Drugs. 34:1987;50-97.
114. 2 receptors, and their blockade by naftidrofuryl: a targeted therapy of vascular diseases. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 23:(Suppl. 3):1994;S37-S43.
115. Wood S.C., Appenzeller O. Physiology and pharmacology of a rheologically active drug - pentoxifylline. Ann. Sports Med. 4:1988;260-262.
116. Yagi N., Fisch U., Murata K. Perilymphatic oxygen tension and vasoactive drugs. Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol. 87:1978;364-369.
117. Yamasoba T., Nuttall A.L., Harris C., Raphael Y., Miller J.M. Role of glutathione in protection against noise-induced hearing loss. Brain Res. 784:1998;82-90.
118. Yamasoba T., Schacht J., Shoji F., Miller J.M. Attenuation of cochlear damage from noise-trauma by an iron chelator, a free radical scavenger and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor in vivo. Brain Res. 815:1999;317-325.
119. Ylikoski J., Pirvola U., Virkkala J., Suvanto P., Liang X.Q., Magal E., Altschuler R., Miller J.M. Guinea pig auditory neurons are protected by glial cell line-derived growth factor from degeneration after noise trauma. Hear. Res. 124:1998;17-26.
120. Z'Brun A. Ginkgo - Dichtung und Wahrheit. (Ginkgo - myth and reality.). Schweiz. Rundsch. Med. Prax. 84:1995;1-6.