Secondary prevention strategies for coronary heart disease

Journal of Thrombosis and Thrombolysis

Volumn 29, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 8-24

  Weiner, Shepard D ^a   Rabbani, Leroy E ^a  

^a Department of Medicine   (United States)

Author keywords

Atherothrombosis; Risk reduction; Secondary prevention

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; ANGIOTENSIN RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; ANTITHROMBOCYTIC AGENT; APIXABAN; ARGATROBAN; ATORVASTATIN; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CANGRELOR; CLOPIDOGREL; DABIGATRAN; DABIGATRAN ETEXILATE; DARAPLADIB; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; ENOXAPARIN; FLUINDOSTATIN; HIRUDIN; HIRULOG; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; MEVINOLIN; ODIPARCIL; PLACEBO; PRAVASTATIN; RAZAXABAN; RIVAROXABAN; SIMVASTATIN; TICAGRELOR; TICLOPIDINE; UNINDEXED DRUG; WARFARIN; XIMELAGATRAN;

ACUTE CORONARY SYNDROME; ACUTE HEART INFARCTION; BARE METAL STENT; BLEEDING; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT; CLINICAL TRIAL; COMBINATION CHEMOTHERAPY; CORONARY ARTERY ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CORONARY ARTERY BYPASS GRAFT; COST EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS; DIAGNOSTIC VALUE; DIET THERAPY; DISEASE MARKER; DOSE RESPONSE; DRUG ABSORPTION; DRUG COST; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG ELUTING STENT; DRUG MEGADOSE; DRUG TARGETING; DRUG TOLERABILITY; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; EMBOLISM; EXERCISE; GENETIC RISK; HEART INFARCTION; HEART REHABILITATION; HOSPITAL COST; HUMAN; HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA; ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASE; LIVER TOXICITY; LOADING DRUG DOSE; LOW DRUG DOSE; MONOTHERAPY; MORTALITY; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; OBESITY; PERCUTANEOUS CORONARY INTERVENTION; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PREDICTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK REDUCTION; SECONDARY PREVENTION; SINGLE NUCLEOTIDE POLYMORPHISM; SMOKING CESSATION; STROKE; THROMBOSIS; UNSPECIFIED SIDE EFFECT; VENOUS THROMBOEMBOLISM; WEIGHT REDUCTION;

CORONARY DISEASE; HUMANS; RISK ASSESSMENT; SECONDARY PREVENTION;

EID: 77949913670     PISSN: 09295305     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s11239-009-0381-8     Document Type: Review

References (193)

1. V Fuster PR Moreno ZA Fayad, et al. 2005 Atherothrombosis and high-risk plaque: part I: evolving concepts J Am Coll Cardiol 46 6 937 954 16168274
2. HC Stary AB Chandler RE Dinsmore, et al. 1995 A definition of advanced types of atherosclerotic lesions and a histologic classification of atherosclerosis. A report from the committee on vascular lesions of the council on arteriosclerosis, American heart association Circulation 92 1355 1374 7648691
3. HC Stary 2000 Natural history and histologic classification of atherosclerotic lesions: an update Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 20 1177 1178 10807728
4. R Corti R Hutter JJ Badimon, et al. 2004 Evolving concepts in the triad of atherosclerosis, inflammation and thrombosis J Thromb Thrombolysis 17 1 35 44 15277786
5. P Libby P Theroux 2005 Pathophysiology of coronary artery disease Circulation 111 3481 3488 15983262
6. W Rosamond K Flegal K Furie, et al. 2008 Heart disease and stroke statistics - 2008 update: a report from the American heart association statistics committee and stroke statistics subcommittee Circulation 117 4 e25 e146 18086926
7. D Lloyd-Jones R Adams M Carnethon, et al. 2009 Heart disease and stroke statistics - 2009 update: a report from the American heart association statistics committee and stroke statistics subcommittee Circulation 119 3 480 486 19171871
8. Thom TJ, Kannel WB, Silbershatz H et al (2001) Cardiovascular disease in the United States and preventive approaches. In: Fuster V, Alezander RW, O'Rourke RA (eds) Hurst's the heart, arteries and veins, 10th edn. McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, pp 3-7
9. SM Schappert CW Burt 2006 Ambulatory care visits to physician offices, hospital outpatient departments, and emergency departments: United States, 2001-2002. National center for health statistics Vital Health Stat 159 1 66
10. Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (2006) Health care financing review: medicare and medicaid statistical supplement, Table 27. Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, Baltimore, Md. http://www.cms.hhs.gov/ MedicareMedicaidStatSupp/. Accessed 16 April 2009
11. JA Ambrose MA Tannenbaum D Alexopoulos, et al. 1988 Angiographic progression of coronary artery disease and the development of myocardial infarction J Am Coll Cardiol 12 1 56 62 3379219
12. WC Little M Constantinescu RJ Applegate, et al. 1988 Can coronary angiography predict the site of a subsequent myocardial infarction in patients with mild-to-moderate coronary artery disease? Circulation 78 5 Pt 1 1157 1166 3180375
13. D Giroud JM Li P Urban, et al. 1992 Relation of the site of acute myocardial infarction to the most severe coronary arterial stenosis at prior angiography Am J Cardiol 69 8 729 732 1546645
14. S Waxman F Ishibashi JE Muller 2006 Detection and treatment of vulnerable plaques and vulnerable patients: novel approaches to prevention of coronary events Circulation 114 2390 2411 17130356
15. K Christensen JC Murray 2007 What genome-wide association studies can do for medicine N Engl J Med 356 1094 1097 17360987
16. NJ Samani J Erdmann AS Hall, et al. 2007 Genomewide association analysis of coronary artery disease N Engl J Med 357 443 453 17634449
17. EJ Topol 2005 The genomic basis of myocardial infarction J Am Coll Cardiol 46 1456 1465 16226168
18. D Seo GS Ginsburg PJ Goldschmidt-Clermont 2006 Gene expression analysis of cardiovascular diseases: novel insights into biology and clinical applications J Am Coll Cardiol 48 2 227 235 16843168
19. SP Mazer LE Rabbani 2004 Evidence for C-reactive protein's role in (CRP) vascular disease: atherothrombosis, immuno-regulation and CRP J Thromb Thrombolysis 17 2 95 105 15306744
20. PM Ridker 2003 Clinical application of C-reactive protein for cardiovascular disease detection and prevention Circulation 107 3 363 369 12551853
21. PM Ridker N Rifai MA Pfeffer, et al. 1998 Inflammation, pravastatin, and the risk of coronary events after myocardial infarction in patients with average cholesterol levels. Cholesterol and recurrent events (CARE) investigators Circulation 98 839 844 9738637
22. F Haverkate SG Thompson SD Pyke JR Gallimore MB Pepys 1997 Production of C-reactive protein and risk of coronary events in stable and unstable angina. European concerted action on thrombosis and disabilities angina pectoris study group Lancet 349 462 466 9040576
23. L Retterstol L Eikvar M Bohn A Bakken J Erikssen K Berg 2002 C-reactive protein predicts death in patients with previous premature myocardial infarction - a 10 year follow-up study Atherosclerosis 160 433 440 11849668
24. PM Ridker CP Cannon D Morrow, et al. 2005 C-reactive protein levels and outcomes after statin therapy N Engl J Med 352 20 28 15635109
25. SE Nissen EM Tuzcu P Schoenhagen, et al. 2005 Statin therapy, LDL cholesterol, C-reactive protein, and coronary artery disease N Engl J Med 352 1 29 38 15635110
26. S Tsimikas JT Willerson PM Ridker 2006 C-reactive protein and other emerging blood biomarkers to optimize risk stratification of vulnerable patients J Am Coll Cardiol 47 8 Suppl C19 C31 16631506
27. PM Ridker E Danielson FA Fonseca, et al. 2008 Rosuvastatin to prevent vascular events in men and women with elevated C-reactive protein N Engl J Med 359 21 2195 2207 18997196
28. P Kinnunen O Vuolteenaho H Ruskoaho 1993 Mechanisms of atrial and brain natriuretic peptide release from rat ventricular myocardium: effect of stretching Endocrinology 132 5 1961 1970 8477647
29. A Maisel 2002 B-type natriuretic peptide levels: diagnostic and prognostic in congestive heart failure: what's next? Circulation 105 20 2328 2331 12021215
30. R Schnabel E Lubos HJ Rupprecht, et al. 2006 B-type natriuretic peptide and the risk of cardiovascular events and dearth in patients with stable angina: results from the AtheroGene study J Am Coll Cardiol 47 3 552 558 16458135
31. M Richards MG Nicholls EA Espiner, et al. 2006 Comparison of B-type natriuretic peptides for assessment of cardiac function and prognosis in stable ischemic heart disease J Am Coll Cardiol 47 1 52 60 16386664
32. C Kragelund B Gronning L Kober, et al. 2005 N-terminal Pro-B-type natriuretic peptide and long-term mortality in stable coronary heart disease N Engl J Med 352 666 675 15716560
33. JA de Lemos DA Morrow JH Bentley, et al. 2001 The prognostic value of B-type natriuretic peptide in patients with acute coronary syndromes N Engl J Med 345 14 1014 1021 11586953
34. DA Morrow JA de Lemos MA Blazing, et al. 2005 Prognostic value of serial B-type natriuretic peptide testing during follow-up of patients with unstable coronary artery disease JAMA 294 22 2866 2871 16352794
35. JA Suwaidi S Hamasaki ST Higano, et al. 2000 Long-term follow-up of patients with mild coronary artery disease and endothelial dysfunction Circulation 101 9 948 954 10704159
36. T Heitzer T Schlinzig K Krohn, et al. 2001 Endothelial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and risk of cardiovascular events in patients with coronary artery disease Circulation 104 22 2673 2678 11723017
37. ML Bots AW Hoes PJ Koudstaal, et al. 1997 Common carotid intima-media thickness and risk of stroke and myocardial infarction: the Rotterdam study Circulation 96 5 1432 1437 9315528
38. MJ Budoff 2004 Tracking progression of heart disease with cardiac computed tomography J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 9 2 75 82
39. P Raggi TQ Callister LJ Shaw 2004 Progression of coronary artery calcium and risk of first myocardial infarction in patients receiving cholesterol-lowering therapy Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 24 7 1272 1277 15059806
40. Y Arad LA Spadaro M Roth, et al. 2005 Treatment of asymptomatic adults with elevated coronary calcium scores with atorvastatin, vitamin C, and vitamin E: the St. Francis heart study randomized clinical trial J Am Coll Cardiol 46 1 166 172 15992652
41. C Yuan E Lin J Millard, et al. 1999 Closed contour edge detection of blood vessel lumen and outer wall boundaries in black-blood MR images Magn Reson Imaging 17 257 266 10215481
42. RL Wilensky HK Song VA Ferrari 2007 Role of magnetic resonance and intravascular magnetic resonance in the detection of vulnerable plaques J Am Coll Cardiol 50 7 584 590 17692741
43. S Blankenberg MJ McQueen M Smieja, et al. 2006 Comparative impact of multiple biomarkers and N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide in the context of conventional risk factors for the prediction of recurrent cardiovascular events in the heart outcomes prevention evaluation (HOPE) study Circulation 114 3 201 208 16831981
44. B Zethelius L Berglund J Sundstrom, et al. 2008 Use of multiple biomarkers to improve the prediction of death from cardiovascular causes N Engl J Med 358 20 2107 2116 18480203
45. Third report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) 2002 Expert panel on detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood cholesterol in adults (adult treatment panel III) Circulation 106 3143 3421
46. DT Miller PM Ridker P Libby, et al. 2007 Atherosclerosis: the path from genomics to therapeutics J Am Coll Cardiol 49 15 1589 1599 17433948
47. SC Smith J Allen SN Blair, et al. 2006 AHA/ACC guidelines for secondary prevention for patients with coronary and other atherosclerotic vascular disease: 2006 update: endorsed by the national heart, lung, and blood institute Circulation 113 2363 2372 16702489
48. D Mukherjee J Fang S Chetcuti, et al. 2004 Impact of combination evidence-based medical therapy on mortality in patients with acute coronary syndromes Circulation 109 6 745 749 14970110
49. S Setoguchi RJ Glynn J Avorn, et al. 2008 Improvements in long-term mortality after myocardial infarction and increased use of cardiovascular drugs after discharge: a 10-year trend analysis J Am Coll Cardiol 51 13 1247 1254 18371553
50. WE Boden RA O'Rourke TK Koon, et al. 2007 Optimal medical therapy with or without PCI for stable coronary disease N Engl J Med 356 12 1503 1516 17387127
51. R Jaffe BH Strauss 2007 Late and very late thrombosis of drug-eluting stents: evolving concepts and perspectives J Am Coll Cardiol 50 2 119 127 17616295
52. Antithrombotic Trialists' Collaboration (2002) Collaborative meta-analysis of randomised trials of antiplatelet therapy for prevention of death, myocardial infarction, and stroke in high risk patients. BMJ 324(7329):71-86
53. RJ Peters SR Mehta KA Fox F Zhao BS Lewis SL Kopecky R Diaz PJ Commerford V Valentin S Yusuf 2003 Effects of aspirin dose when used alone or in combination with clopidogrel in patients with acute coronary syndromes: observations from the clopidogrel in unstable angina to prevent recurrent events (CURE) study Circulation 108 14 1682 1687 14504182
54. EJ Topol D Easton RA Harrington P Amarenco RM Califf C Graffagnino S Davis HC Diener J Ferguson D Fitzgerald J Granett A Shuaib PJ Koudstaal P Theroux F Van de Werf K Sigmon K Pieper M Vallee JT Willerson 2003 Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, international trial of the oral IIb/IIIa antagonist lotrafiban in coronary and cerebrovascular disease Circulation 108 4 399 406 12874182
55. KR McQuaid L Laine 2006 Systematic review and meta-analysis of adverse events of low-dose aspirin and clopidogrel in randomized controlled trials Am J Med 119 8 624 638 16887404
56. Antiplatelet Trialists' Collaboration (1994) Collaborative overview of randomized trials of antiplatelet therapy: maintenance of vascular graft or arterial patency by antiplatelet therapy. Antiplatelet trialists' collaboration. BMJ 308(6922):159-168
57. CAPRIE Steering Committee (1996) A randomised, blinded, trial of clopidogrel versus aspirin in patients at risk of ischaemic events (CAPRIE). CAPRIE steering committee. Lancet 348(9038):1329-1339
58. J-M Gaspoz PG Coxson PA Goldman, et al. 2002 Cost effectiveness of aspirin, clopidogrel, or both for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease N Engl J Med 346 1800 1806 12050341
59. S Yusuf F Zhao SR Mehta S Chrolavicius G Tognoni KK Fox 2001 Effects of clopidogrel in addition to aspirin in patients with acute coronary syndromes without ST-segment elevation N Engl J Med 345 7 494 502 11519503
60. A Budaj S Yusuf SR Mehta KA Fox G Tognoni F Zhao S Chrolavicius D Hunt M Keltai MG Franzosi 2002 Benefit of clopidogrel in patients with acute coronary syndromes without ST-segment elevation in various risk groups Circulation 106 13 1622 1626 12270853
61. F Balsano P Rizzon F Violi D Scrutinio C Cimminiello F Aguglia C Pasotti G Rudelli 1990 Antiplatelet treatment with ticlopidine in unstable angina. A controlled multicenter clinical trial. The Studio della Ticlopidina nell'Angina Instabile Group Circulation 82 1 17 26 2194694
62. SR Mehta S Yusuf 2003 Short- and long-term oral antiplatelet therapy in acute coronary syndromes and percutaneous coronary intervention J Am Coll Cardiol 41 4 Suppl S 79S 88S 12644345
63. SR Mehta S Yusuf RJ Peters ME Bertrand BS Lewis MK Natarajan K Malmberg H Rupprecht F Zhao S Chrolavicius I Copland KA Fox 2001 Effects of pretreatment with clopidogrel and aspirin followed by long-term therapy in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention: the PCI-CURE study Lancet 358 9281 527 533 11520521
64. SR Steinhubl PB Berger JT Mann 3rd ET Fry A DeLago C Wilmer EJ Topol 2002 Early and sustained dual oral antiplatelet therapy following percutaneous coronary intervention: a randomized controlled trial JAMA 288 19 2411 2420 12435254
65. M Pfisterer HP Brunner-La Rocca PT Buser P Rickenbacher P Hunziker C Mueller R Jeger F Bader S Osswald C Kaiser 2006 BASKET-LATE investigators. Late clinical events after clopidogrel discontinuation may limit the benefit of drug-eluting stents: an observational study of drug-eluting versus bare-metal stents J Am Coll Cardiol 48 12 2584 2591 17174201
66. J Daemen P Wenaweser K Tsuchida, et al. 2007 Early and late coronary stent thrombosis of sirolimus-eluting and paclitaxel-eluting stents in routine clinical practice: Data from a large two-institutional cohort study Lancet 369 667 678 17321312
67. B Lagerqvist SK James U Stenestrand J Lindbäck T Nilsson L Wallentin 2007 SCAAR study group. Long-term outcomes with drug-eluting stents versus bare-metal stents in Sweden N Engl J Med 356 10 1009 1019 17296822
68. L Mauri WH Hsieh JM Massaro KK Ho R D'Agostino DE Cutlip 2007 Stent thrombosis in randomized clinical trials of drug-eluting stents N Engl J Med 356 10 1020 1029 17296821
69. GW Stone JW Moses SG Ellis J Schofer KD Dawkins MC Morice A Colombo E Schampaert E Grube AJ Kirtane DE Cutlip M Fahy SJ Pocock R Mehran MB Leon 2007 Safety and efficacy of sirolimus- and paclitaxel-eluting coronary stents N Engl J Med 356 10 998 1008 17296824
70. FDA DES hearing "commendable" but impact questionable, experts conclude. From theheart.org. Accessed 22 Jan 2009
71. $100 M DAPT supplants CODA: massive DES/dual antiplatelet therapy trial announced at TCT. From theheart.org. Accessed 22 Jan 2009
72. RB Weiner M O'Donoghue 2007 Thienopyridines and the management of ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction Acute Coronary Syndromes 8 42 48
73. MS Sabatine CP Cannon CM Gibson, et al. 2005 Addition of clopidogrel to aspirin and fibrinolytic therapy for myocardial infarction with ST-segment elevation N Engl J Med 352 12 1179 1189 15758000
74. ZM Chen LX Jiang YP Chen, et al. 2005 Addition of clopidogrel to aspirin in 45, 852 patients with acute myocardial infarction: randomized placebo-controlled trial Lancet 366 9497 1607 1621 16271642
75. MS Sabatine CP Cannon CM Gibson, et al. 2005 Effect of clopidogrel pretreatment before percutaneous coronary intervention in patients with ST-elevation myocardial infarction treated with fibrinolytics: the PCI-CLARITY study JAMA 294 10 1224 1232 16143698
76. EM Antman M Hand PW Armstrong, et al. 2008 2007 focused update of the ACC/AHA 2004 guidelines for the management of patients with ST-elevation myocardial infarction Circulation 117 296 329 18071078
77. DL Bhatt KA Fox W Hacke, et al. 2006 Clopidogrel and aspirin versus aspirin alone for the prevention of atherothrombotic events N Engl J Med 354 16 1706 1717 16531616
78. JM Gaspoz PG Coxson PA Goldman, et al. 2002 Cost effectiveness of aspirin, clopidogrel, or both for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease N Eng J Med 346 1800 1806
79. PA Gurbel KP Bliden 2003 Durability of platelet inhibition by clopidogrel Am J Card 91 1123 1125 12714161
80. I Muller F Besta C Schulz, et al. 2003 Prevalence of clopidogrel non-responders among patients with stable angina pectoris scheduled for elective coronary stent placement Thromb Haemost 89 783 787 12719773
81. TA Nguyen JG Diodati C Pharand 2005 Resistance to clopidogrel: a review of the evidence J Am Coll Cardiol 45 8 1157 1164 15837243
82. AD Michelson 2004 Platelet function testing in cardiovascular diseases Circulation 110 19 e489 e493 15533872
83. T Simon C Verstuyft M Mary-Krause, et al. 2009 Genetic determinants of response to clopidogrel and cardiovascular events N Engl J Med 360 363 375 19106083
84. JL Mega SL Close SD Wiviott, et al. 2009 Cytochrome P-450 polymorphisms and response to clopidogrel N Engl J Med 360 354 362 19106084
85. JE Freedman EM Hylek 2009 Clopidogrel, genetics, and drug responsiveness N Engl J Med 360 411 413 19164193
86. S Iyengar LE Rabbani 2009 Beyond platelet inhibition: potential pleiotropic effects of ADP-receptor antagonists J Thromb Thrombolysis 27 3 300 306 18398577
87. SD Wiviott E Braunwald CH McCabe, et al. 2007 Prasugrel versus clopidogrel in patients with acute coronary syndromes N Engl J Med 357 20 2001 2015 17982182
88. DL Bhatt 2007 Intensifying platelet inhibition - navigating between Scylla and Charybdis New Engl J Med 20 2078 2081
89. SS Anand S Yusuf 2003 Oral anticoagulants in patients with coronary artery disease J Am Coll Cardiol 41 4 Supple S 62S 69S 12644343
90. M Hurlen M Abdelnoor P Smith, et al. 2002 Warfarin, aspirin, or both after myocardial infarction N Engl J Med 347 969 974 12324552
91. RO Bonow BA Carabello K Chatterjee, et al. 2006 ACC/AHA 2006 guidelines for the management of patients with valvular heart disease. A report of the American college of cardiology/American heart association task force on practice guidelines J Am Coll Cardiol 48 3 e1 e148 16875962
92. P Pullicino JL Thompson B Barton, et al. 2006 Warfarin versus aspirin in patients with reduced cardiac ejection fraction (WARCEF): rationale, objectives, and design J Card Fail 12 1 39 46 16500579
93. DN Salem PT O'Gara C Madias, et al. 2008 Valvular and structural heart disease: American college of chest physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines (8th edition) Chest 133 6 Suppl 593S 629S 18574274
94. EG Butchart C Gohlke-Barwolf MJ Antunes, et al. 2005 Recommendations for the management of patients after heart valve surgery Eur Heart J 26 22 2463 2471 16103039
95. S James A Akerblom CP Cannon, et al. 2009 Comparison of ticagrelor, the first reversible oral P2Y12 receptor antagonist, with clopidogrel in patients with acute coronary syndromes: rationale, design, and baseline characteristics of the PLATelet inhibition and patient outcomes (PLATO) trial Am Heart J 157 599 605 19332184
96. Sabatine MS (2009) Novel antiplatelet strategies in acute coronary syndromes. Cleve Clin J Med 76(Suppl 1):S8-S15
97. AL Leger L Covic A Kuliopulos 2006 Protease-activated receptors in cardiovascular diseases Circulation 114 1070 1077 16952995
98. AJ Leger SL Jacques J Badar, et al. 2006 Blocking the protease-activated receptor 1-4 heterodimer in platelet-mediated thrombosis Circulation 113 1244 1254 16505172
99. R Shah 2009 Protease-activated receptors in cardiovascular health and diseases Am Heart J 157 253 262 19185631
100. DJ Angiolillo LA Guzman 2008 Clinical overview of promising nonthienopyridine antiplatelet agents Am Heart J 156 S23 S28 18657683
101. S Husted 2007 New developments in oral antiplatelet therapy Eur Heart J Suppl 9 D20 D27
102. JL Strande A Hsu J Su, et al. 2007 SCH 79797, a selective PAR1 antagonist, limits myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury in rat hearts Basic Res Cardiol 102 4 350 358 17468933
103. L Wallentin RG Wilcox WD Weaver, et al. 2003 Oral ximelagatran for secondary prophylaxis after myocardial infarction: the ESTEEM randomized controlled trial Lancet 362 9386 789 797 13678873
104. J Hirsh M O'Donnell JW Eikelboom 2007 Beyond unfractionated heparin and warfarin: current and future advances Circulation 116 552 560 17664384
105. AG Turpie MR Lassen BP Davidson, et al. 2009 Rivaroxaban versus enoxaparin for thromboprophylaxis after total knee arthroplasty (RECORD4): a randomized trial Lancet 373 9676 1673 1680 19411100
106. JL Mega E Braunwald S Mohanavelu, et al. 2009 Rivaroxaban versus placebo in patients with acute coronary syndromes (ATLAS ACS-TIMI 46): a randomized, double-blind, phase II trial Lancet 374 29 38 19539361
107. APPRAISE Steering Committee and Investigators 2009 Apixaban, an oral, direct, selective factor Xa inhibitor, in combination with antiplatelet therapy after acute coronary syndrome: results of the Apixaban for prevention of acute ischemic and safety events (APPRAISE) trial Circulation 119 2877 2885
108. CH MacPhee KE Moores HF Boyd, et al. 1999 Lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2, platelet-activating factor acetylhydrolase, generates two bioactive products during the oxidation of low-density lipoprotein: use of a novel inhibitor Biochem J 338 479 487 10024526
109. FD Kolodgie AP Burke KS Skorija, et al. 2006 Lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 protein expression in the natural progression of human coronary atherosclerosis Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 26 2523 2529 16960105
110. M O'Donoghue DA Morrow MS Sabatine, et al. 2006 Lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 and its association with cardiovascular outcomes in patients with acute coronary syndromes in the PROVE-IT TIMI 22 trial Circulation 113 1745 1752 16537575
111. PW Serruys HM Garcia-Garcia P Buszman, et al. 2008 Effects of direct lipoprotein associated phospholipase A2 inhibitor darapladib on human coronary atherosclerotic plaque Circulation 118 1172 1182 18765397
112. J Pekkanen S Linn G Heiss, et al. 1990 Ten-year mortality from cardiovascular disease in relation to cholesterol level among men with and without preexisting cardiovascular disease N Engl J Med 322 24 1700 1707 2342536
113. Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study Group (1994) Randomized trial of cholesterol lowering in 4444 patients with coronary heart disease: the Scandinavian simvastatin survival study (4S). Lancet 344(8934):1383-1389
114. FM Sacks MA Pfeffer LA Moye, et al. 1996 The effect of pravastatin on coronary events after myocardial infarction in patients with average cholesterol levels. Cholesterol and recurrent events trial investigators N Engl J Med 335 14 1001 1009 8801446
115. AM Tonkin D Colquhoun J Emberson, et al. 2000 Effects of pravastatin in 3260 patients with unstable angina: results from the LIPID study Lancet 356 9245 1871 1875 11130382
116. Anonymous (2002) MRC/BHF Heart protection study of cholesterol lowering with simvastatin in 20,536 high-risk individuals: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 360(9326):7-22
117. CP Cannon E Braunwald CH McCabe, et al. 2004 Intensive versus moderate lipid lowering with statins after acute coronary syndromes N Engl J Med 350 15 1495 1504 15007110
118. TR Pedersen O Faergeman JJ Kastelein, et al. 2005 High-dose atorvastatin vs usual-dose simvastatin for secondary prevention after myocardial infarction: the IDEAL study: a randomized controlled trial JAMA 294 19 2437 2445 16287954
119. JC LaRosa SM Grundy DD Waters, et al. 2005 Intensive lipid lowering with atorvastatin in patients with stable coronary disease N Engl J Med 352 14 1425 1435 15755765
120. JA de Lemos MA Blazing SD Wiviott, et al. 2004 Early intensive vs a delayed conservative simvastatin strategy in patients with acute coronary syndromes: phase Z of the A to Z trial JAMA 292 11 1307 1316 15337732
121. SM Grundy JI Cleeman CN Merz, et al. 2004 Implications of recent clinical trials for the national cholesterol education program adult treatment panel III guidelines Circulation 110 2 227 239 15249516
122. SD Wiviott CP Cannon DA Morrow, et al. 2005 Can low-density lipoprotein be too low? Te safety and efficacy of achieving very low low-density lipoprotein with intensive statin therapy: a PROVE IT-TIMI 22 substudy J Am Coll Cardiol 46 8 1411 1416 16226163
123. SF Shah DD Waters P Barter, et al. 2008 Intensive lipid-lowering with atorvastatin for secondary prevention in patients after coronary artery bypass surgery J Am Coll Cardiol 51 20 1938 1943 18482661
124. HB Rubins SJ Robins D Collins, et al. 1999 Gemfibrozil for the secondary prevention of coronary heart disease in men with low levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol N Engl J Med 341 410 418 10438259
125. PD Thompson P Clarkson RH Karas 2003 Statin-associated myopathy JAMA 289 13 1681 1690 12672737
126. PM Kris-Etherton WS Harris LJ Appel, et al. 2003 Omega-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease: new recommendations from the American heart association Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 23 2 151 152 12588750
127. SE Nissen J-C Tardif SJ Nicholls, et al. 2007 Effect of torcetrapib on the progression of coronary atherosclerosis N Engl J Med 356 1304 1316 17387129
128. PJ Barter M Caulfield M Eriksson, et al. 2007 Effects of torcetrapib in patients at high risk for coronary events N Engl J Med 357 21 2109 2122 17984165
129. DJ Rader 2007 Illuminating HDL - is it still a viable therapeutic target? N Engl J Med 357 21 2180 2183 17984168
130. AV Chobanian GL Bakris HR Black, et al. 2003 The seventh report of the joint national committee on prevention, detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure: the JNC 7 Report JAMA 289 19 2560 2572 12748199
131. S Lewington R Clarke N Qizilbash, et al. 2002 Age-specific relevance of usual blood pressure to vascular mortality: a meta-analysis of individual data for one million adults in 61 prospective studies Lancet 360 9349 1903 1913 12493255
132. RS Vasan MG Larson EP Leip, et al. 2001 Impact of high-normal blood pressure on the risk of cardiovascular disease N Eng J Med 345 18 1291 1297
133. PJ Mason JE Manson HD Sesso, et al. 2004 Blood pressure and risk of secondary cardiovascular events in women: the women's antioxidant cardiovascular study (WACS) Circulation 190 13 1623 1629
134. C Rosendorff HR Black CP Cannon, et al. 2007 Treatment of hypertension in the prevention and management of ischemic heart disease: a scientific statement from the American Heart association council for high blood pressure research and the councils on clinical cardiology and epidemiology and prevention Circulation 115 21 2761 2788 17502569
135. G Mancia G De Backer A Dominiczak, et al. 2007 2007 Guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension: the task force for the management of arterial hypertension of the European society of hypertension (ESH) and of the European society of cardiology (ESC) Eur Heart J 28 12 1462 1536 17562668
136. SM Haffner S Lehto T Ronnemaa, et al. 1998 Mortality from coronary heart disease in subjects with type 2 diabetes and in nondiabetic subjects with and without prior myocardial infarction N Engl J Med 339 4 229 234 9673301
137. W Duckworth C Abraira T Moritz, et al. 2009 Glucose control and vascular complications in veterans with type 2 diabetes N Engl J Med 360 2 129 139 19092145
138. The Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes Study Group 2008 Effects of intensive glucose lowering in type 2 diabetes N Engl J Med 358 2545 2559
139. The ADVANCE Collaborative Group 2008 Intensive blood glucose control and vascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes N Engl J Med 358 2560 2572
140. JS Skyler R Bergenstal RO Bonow, et al. 2009 Intensive glycemic control and the prevention of cardiovascular events: implications of the ACCORD, ADVANCE, and VA diabetes trials: a position statement of the American diabetes association and a scientific statement of the American college of cardiology foundation and the American heart association J Am Coll Cardiol 53 3 298 304 19147051
141. SE Nissen K Wolski 2007 Effect of rosiglitazone on the risk of myocardial infarction and death from cardiovascular causes N Engl J Med 356 24 2457 2471 17517853
142. http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/NEWS/2007/NEW01636.html. Accessed 2 April 2009
143. HJ Dargie 2001 Effect of carvedilol on outcome after myocardial infarction in patients with left ventricular dysfunction: the CAPRICORN randomized trial Lancet 357 9266 1385 1390 11356434
144. SS Gottlieb RJ McCarter RA Vogel 1998 Effect of beta-blockade on mortality among high-risk and low-risk patients after myocardial infarction N Engl J Med 339 8 489 497 9709041
145. COMMIT Collaborative Group (2005) Early intravenous then oral metoprolol in 45,852 patients with acute myocardial infarction: randomized placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 366:1622-1632
146. E Braunwald MJ Domanski SE Fowler, et al. 2004 Angiotensin-converting- enzyme inhibition in stable coronary artery disease N Engl J Med 351 20 2058 2068 15531767
147. S Yusef KK Teo J Poque, et al. 2008 ONTARGET investigators. Telmisartan, ramipril, or both in patients at high risk for vascular events N Engl J Med 358 15 1547 1559
148. B Pitt W Remme F Zannad, et al. 2003 Eplerenone, a selective aldosterone blocker, in patients with left ventricular dysfunction after myocardial infarction N Engl J Med 348 14 1309 1321 12668699
149. WS Weintraub Z Zhang EM Mahoney, et al. 2005 Cost-effectiveness of eplerenone compared with placebo in patients with myocardial infarction complicated by left ventricular dysfunction and heart failure Circulation 111 9 1106 1113 15723981
150. DN Juurlink MM Mamdani DS Lee, et al. 2004 Rates of hyperkalemia after publication of the randomized aldactone evaluation study N Engl J Med 351 6 543 551 15295047
151. G Sanz V Fuster 2009 Fixed-dose combination therapy and secondary cardiovascular prevention: rationale, selection of drugs and target population Nat Clin Pract Cardiovasc Med 6 2 101 110 19104519
152. The Indian Polycap Study (TIPS) (2009) Effects of a polypill (Polycap) on risk factors in middle-aged individuals without cardiovascular disease: a phase II, double-blind, randomized trial. Lancet. http://www.thelancet.com
153. Cannon CP (2009) Can the polypill save the world from heart disease? Lancet. http://ww.thelancet.com
154. R Marchioli F Barzi E Bomba, et al. 2002 Early protection against sudden death by n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids after myocardial infarction: time-course analysis of the results of the Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell'Infarcto Miocardico (GISSI)-Prevenzione Circulation 105 16 1897 1903 11997274
155. F Van de Werf J Bax A Betriu, et al. 2008 Management of acute myocardial infarction in patients presenting with persistent ST-segment elevation: the task force on the management of ST-segment elevation acute myocardial infarction of the European society of cardiology Eur Heart J 29 23 2909 2945 19004841
156. M Naghavi Z Barlas S Siadaty, et al. 2000 Association of influenza vaccination and reduced risk of recurrent myocardial infarction Circulation 102 25 3039 3045 11120692
157. PD Thompson D Buchner IL Pina GJ Balady MA Williams BH Marcus K Berra SN Blair F Costa B Franklin GF Fletcher NF Gordon RR Pate BL Rodriguez AK Yancey NK Wenger 2003 American heart association council on clinical cardiology subcommittee on exercise, rehabilitation, and prevention; American heart association council on nutrition, physical activity, and metabolism subcommittee on physical activity. Exercise and physical activity in the prevention and treatment of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: a statement from the council on clinical cardiology (subcommittee on exercise, rehabilitation, and prevention) and the council on nutrition, physical activity, and metabolism (subcommittee on physical activity) Circulation 107 3109 3116 12821592
158. JP Clausen J Trap-Jensen 1976 Heart rate and arterial blood pressure during exercise in patients with angina pectoris: effects of training and of nitroglycerin Circulation 53 436 442 813911
159. AA Ehsani WH Martin 3rd GW Heath, et al. 1982 Cardiac effects of prolonged and intense exercise training in patients with coronary artery disease Am J Cardiol 50 246 254 7102557
160. J Niebauer R Hambrecht T Velich, et al. 1997 Attenuated progression of coronary artery disease after 6 years of multifactorial risk intervention: role of physical exercise Circulation 96 2534 2541 9355890
161. WC Willett JE Manson MJ Stampfer, et al. 1995 Weight, weight change, and coronary heart disease in women. Risk within the 'normal' weight range JAMA 273 6 461 465 7654270
162. RM Krauss M Winston RN Fletcher, et al. 1998 Obesity: impact on cardiovascular disease Circulation 98 14 1472 1476
163. FM Sacks GA Bray VJ Carey, et al. 2009 Comparison of weight-loss diets with different compositions of fat, protein, and carbohydrates N Engl J Med 360 9 859 873 19246357
164. JA Iestra D Kromhout YT van der Schouww, et al. 2005 Effect size estimates of lifestyle and dietary changes on all-cause mortality in coronary artery disease patients: a systematic review Circulation 112 6 924 934 16087812
165. D Hasdai KN Garratt DE Grill, et al. 1997 Effect of smoking status on the long-term outcome after successful percutaneous coronary revascularization N Engl J Med 336 11 755 761 9052653
166. RD Rea SR Heckbert RC Kaplan, et al. 2002 Smoking status and risk for recurrent coronary events after myocardial infarction Ann Intern Med 137 6 494 500 12230350
167. DE Jorenby JT Hays NA Rigotti, et al. 2006 Efficacy of varenicline, an alpha4beta2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor partial agonist, vs placebo or sustained-release bupropion for smoking cessation: a randomized controlled trial JAMA 296 1 56 63 16820547
168. http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/NEWS/2007/NEW01749.html. Accessed 2 April 2009
169. GT O'Connor JE Buring S Yusuf, et al. 1989 An overview of randomized trials of rehabilitation with exercise after myocardial infarction Circulation 80 234 244 2665973
170. NB Oldridge GH Guyatt ME Fischer, et al. 1988 Cardiac rehabilitation after myocardial infarction: combined experience of randomized clinical trials JAMA 260 945 950 3398199
171. Jolliffe JA, Rees K, Taylor RS et al (2001) Exercise-based rehabilitation for coronary heart disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (1):CD001800
172. Balady GJ, Williams MA, Ades PA, Bittner V, Comoss P, Foody JM, Franklin B, Sanderson B, Southard D, American Heart Association Exercise, Cardiac Rehabilitation, and Prevention Committee, The Council on Clinical Cardiology, American Heart Association Council on Cardiovascular Nursing, American Heart Association Council on Epidemiology and Prevention, American Heart Association Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism, American Association of Cardiovascular and Pulmonary Rehabilitation (2007) Core components of cardiac rehabilitation/secondary prevention programs: 2007 update: a scientific statement from the American heart association exercise, cardiac rehabilitation, and prevention committee, the council on clinical cardiology; the councils on cardiovascular nursing, epidemiology and prevention, and nutrition, physical activity, and metabolism; and the American Association of cardiovascular and pulmonary rehabilitation. Circulation 115(20):2675-2682
173. GJ Balady PA Ades P Comoss M Limacher IL Piña D Southard MA Williams T Bazzarre 2000 Core components of cardiac rehabilitation/secondary prevention programs: a statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart association and the American association of cardiovascular and pulmonary rehabilitation writing group Circulation 102 1069 1073 10961975
174. BJ Witt SJ Jacobsen SA Weston JM Killian RA Meverden TG Allison GS Reeder VL Roger 2004 Cardiac rehabilitation after myocardial infarction in the community J Am Coll Cardiol 44 988 996 15337208
175. AJ Moss WJ Hall DS Cannom, et al. 1996 Improved survival with an implanted defibrillator in patients with coronary disease at high risk for ventricular arrhythmia. Multicenter automatic defibrillator implantation trial investigators N Engl J Med 335 1933 1940 8960472
176. AJ Moss W Zareba WJ Hall, et al. 2002 Prophylactic implantation of a defibrillator in patients with myocardial infarction and reduced ejection fraction N Engl J Med 346 877 883 11907286
177. GH Bardy KL Lee DB Mark, et al. 2005 Amiodarone or an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator for congestive heart failure N Engl J Med 352 225 237 15659722
178. SH Hohnloser KH Kuck P Dorian, et al. 2008 Prophylactic use of an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator after acute myocardial infarction N Engl J Med 351 24 2481 2488
179. AE Epstein JP DiMarco KA Ellenbogen, et al. 2008 ACC/AHA/HRS 2008 guidelines for device-based therapy for cardiac rhythm abnormalities: a report of the American college of cardiology/American heart association task force on practice guidelines (writing committee to revise the ACC/AHA/NASPE 2002 guideline update for implantation of cardiac pacemakers and antiarrhythmia devices): developed in collaboration with the American association for thoracic surgery and society of thoracic surgeons Circulation 117 21 e350 e408 18483207
180. BZ Simkhovich MT Kleinman RA Kloner 2008 Air pollution and cardiovascular injury: epidemiology, toxicology, and mechanisms J Am Coll Cardiol 52 9 719 726 18718418
181. NL Mills H Tornqvist MC Gonzalez, et al. 2007 Ischemic and thrombotic effects of dilute diesel-exhaust inhalation in men with coronary heart disease N Engl J Med 357 11 1075 1082 17855668
182. W Whang LD Kubzansky LD Kawachi, et al. 2009 Depression and risk of sudden cardiac death and coronary heart disease in women: results from the nurses' health study J Am Coll Cardiol 53 11 950 958 19281925
183. JH Lichtman JT Bigger Jr JA Blumenthal, et al. 2008 Depression and coronary heart disease: recommendations for screening, referral, and treatment: a science advisory from the American heart association prevention committee of the council on cardiovascular nursing, council on clinical cardiology, council on epidemiology and prevention, and interdisciplinary council on quality of care and outcomes research: endorsed by the American psychiatric association Circulation 118 17 1768 1775 18824640
184. DH Thom JT Grayston DS Siscovick, et al. 1992 Association of prior infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae and angiographically demonstrated coronary artery disease JAMA 268 68 72 1608116
185. CC Kuo A Shor LA Campbell, et al. 1993 Demonstration of Chlamydia pneumoniae in atherosclerotic lesions of coronary arteries J Infect Dis 167 841 849 8450249
186. JT Grayston RA Kronmal LA Jackson, et al. 2005 Azithromycin for the secondary prevention of coronary events N Engl J Med 352 16 1637 1645 15843666
187. CP Cannon E Braunwald CH McCabe, et al. 2005 Antibiotic treatment of Chlamydia pneumoniae after acute coronary syndrome N Engl J Med 352 16 1646 1654 15843667
188. O Nygard JE Nordrehaug H Refsum, et al. 1997 Plasma homocysteine levels and mortality in patients with coronary artery disease N Engl J Med 337 4 230 236 9227928
189. M Ebbing O Bleie PM Ueland, et al. 2008 Mortality and cardiovascular events in patients treated with homocysteine-lowering B vitamins after coronary angiography: a randomized controlled trial JAMA 300 7 795 804 18714059
190. S Yusuf G Dagenais J Pogue, et al. 2000 Vitamin E supplementation and cardiovascular events in high-risk patients. The heart outcomes prevention evaluation study investigators N Engl J Med 342 3 154 160 10639540
191. NR Cook CM Albert JM Gaziano, et al. 2007 A randomized factorial trial of vitamins C and E and beta carotene in the secondary prevention of cardiovascular events in women: results from the women's antioxidant cardiovascular study Arch Intern Med 167 10 1610 1618 17698683
192. TJ Wang MJ Pencina SL Booth, et al. 2008 Vitamin D deficiency and risk of cardiovascular disease Circulation 117 4 503 511 18180395
193. ES Ford UA Ajani JB Croft, et al. 2007 Explaining the decrease in U.S. deaths from coronary disease, 1980-2000 N Engl J Med 356 2388 2398 17554120