Myocardial infarction risk in HIV-infected patients: Epidemiology, pathogenesis, and clinical management

AIDS

Volumn 24, Issue 6, 2010, Pages 789-802

  Calza, Leonardo ^a   Manfredi, Roberto ^a   Verucchi, Gabriella ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BOLOGNA   (Italy)

Author keywords

Antiretroviral therapy; Cardiovascular risk; Endothelial dysfunction; HIV infection; Myocardial infarction

Indexed keywords

ABACAVIR; ABACAVIR PLUS LAMIVUDINE; AMPRENAVIR; ATAZANAVIR; ATORVASTATIN; BEZAFIBRATE; CARBOVIR; DIDANOSINE; EMTRICITABINE PLUS TENOFOVIR DISOPROXIL; FENOFIBRATE; FISH OIL; FLUINDOSTATIN; FOSAMPRENAVIR; GEMFIBROZIL; GLITAZONE DERIVATIVE; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; LOPINAVIR; LOPINAVIR PLUS RITONAVIR; MARAVIROC; METFORMIN; NEVIRAPINE; NICOTINIC ACID; PRAVASTATIN; PROTEINASE INHIBITOR; RALTEGRAVIR; RNA DIRECTED DNA POLYMERASE INHIBITOR; ROSUVASTATIN; STAVUDINE; ZIDOVUDINE;

ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CLINICAL TRIAL; DIABETES MELLITUS; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG METABOLISM; DYSLIPIDEMIA; HEART INFARCTION; HIGHLY ACTIVE ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTED PATIENT; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA; HYPERGLYCEMIA; HYPERLIPIDEMIA; HYPERTENSION; HYPERTRIGLYCERIDEMIA; INSULIN RESISTANCE; LIFESTYLE MODIFICATION; MYOPATHY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW;

ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY, HIGHLY ACTIVE; DIDEOXYNUCLEOSIDES; HIV INFECTIONS; HUMANS; MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION; REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE INHIBITORS; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 77949546196     PISSN: 02699370     EISSN: 14735571     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/QAD.0b013e328337afdf     Document Type: Review

References (141)

1. Holmberg SD, Moorman AC, Williamson JM, Tong TC, Ward DJ, Wood KC, et al. Protease inhibitors and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with HIV-1. Lancet 2002; 360:1747-1748.
2. Friis-Møller N, Sabin CA, Weber R, d'Arminio Monforte A, El Sadr WM, Reiss P, et al., for the Data Collection on Adverse Events of Anti-HIV Drugs (DAD) Study Group. Combination antiretroviral therapy and the risk of myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 2003; 349:1993-2003.
3. Stein JH, Klein MA, Bellehumeur JL, McBride PE, Wiebe DA, Otvos JD, et al. Use of human immunodeficiency virus-1 protease inhibitors is associated with atherogenic lipoprotein changes and endothelial dysfunction. Circulation 2001; 104:257-262.
4. De Gaetano Donati K, Rabagliati R, Tumbarello M, Tacconelli E, Amore C, Cauda R, et al. Increased soluble markers of endothelial dysfunction in HIV-positive patients under highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 2003; 17:765-768.
5. Currier JS, Lundgren JD, Carr A, Klein D, Sabin CA, Sax PE, et al. Epidemiological evidence for cardiovascular disease in HIV-infected patients and relationship to highly active anti-retroviral therapy. Circulation 2008; 118:e29-e35.
6. Henry K, Melroe H, Huebsch J, Hermundson J, Levine C, Swensen L, et al. Severe premature coronary artery disease with protease inhibitors. Lancet 1998; 351:1328.
7. Vittecoq D, Escaut L, Monsuez JJ. Vascular complications associated with use of HIV protease inhibitors. Lancet 1998; 351:1959.
8. Friedl AC, Attenhofer Jost CH, Schalcher C, Amann FW, Flepp M, Jenni R, et al. Acceleration of confirmed coronary artery disease among HIV-infected patients on potent antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 2000; 14:2790-2792.
9. Stein JH. Managing cardiovascular risk in patients with HIV infection. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2005; 38:115-123.
10. Jütte A, Schwenk A, Franzen C, Römer K, Diet F, Diehl V, et al. Increasing morbidity from myocardial infarction during HIV protease inhibitor treatment? AIDS 1999; 13:1796-1797.
11. Rickerts V, Brodt H, Staszewski S, Stille W. Incidence of myocardial infarctions in HIV-infected patients between 1983 and 1998: the Frankfurt HIV-cohort study. Eur J Med Res 2000; 5:329-333.
12. Klein D, Hurley LB, Quesenberry CP Jr, Sidney S. Do protease inhibitors increase the risk for coronary heart disease in patients with HIV-1 infection? J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2002; 30:471-477.
13. Currier JS, Taylor A, Boyd F, Dezii CM, Kawabata H, Burtcel B, et al. Coronary heart disease in HIV-infected individuals. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2003; 33:506-512.
14. Mary-Krause M, Cotte L, Simon A, Partisani M, Costagliola D. Increased risk of myocardial infarction with duration of protease inhibitor therapy in HIV-infected men. AIDS 2003; 17:2479-2486.
15. Escaut L, Monsuez JJ, Chironi G, Merad M, Teicher E, Smadja D, et al. Coronary artery disease in HIV infected patients. Intensive Care Med 2003; 29:969-973.
16. DAD Study Group. Class of antiretroviral drugs and the risk of myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 2007; 356:1723-1735.
17. Obel N, Thomsen F, Kronborg G, Larsen CS, Hildebrandt PR, Sørensen HT, et al. Ischemic heart disease in HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected individuals: a population-based cohort study. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 44:1625-1631.
18. Iloeje UH, Yuan Y, L'Italien G, Mauskopf J, Holmberg SD, Moorman AC, et al. Protease inhibitor exposure and increased risk of cardiovascular disease in HIV-infected patients. HIV Med 2005; 6:37-44.
19. Kaplan RC, Kingsley LA, Sharrett R, Li X, Lazar J, Tien PC, et al. Ten-year predicted coronary heart disease risk in HIV-in-fected men and women. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 45:1074-1081.
20. Lang S, Mary-Krause M, Cotte L, Gilquin J, Partisani M, Simon A, et al. Impact of specific NRTI and PI exposure on the risk of myocardial infarction: a case-control study nested within FHDH ANRS CO4 [abstract 43LB]. 16th Conference on Retro-viruses and Opportunistic Infections; Montréal, Canada; 8-11 February 2009.
21. Bozzette SA, Ake CF, Tam HK, Chang SW, Louis TA. Cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events in patients treated for human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med 2003; 348:702-710.
22. Strategies for Management of Antiretroviral Therapy (SMART) Study Group. Major clinical outcomes in antiretroviral therapy (ART)-näive participants and in those not receiving ART at baselineinthe SMART study.JInfect Dis 2008 197 1133-1144.
23. Triant VA, Lee H, Hadigan C, Grinspoon SK. Increased acute myocardial infarction rates and cardiovascular risk factors among patients with human immunodeficiency virus disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007; 92:2506-2512.
24. DAD Study Group. Use of nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors and risk of myocardial infarction in HIV-infected patients enrolled in the D:A:D study: a multicohort collaboration. Lancet 2008; 371:1417-1426.
25. Strategies for Management of Antiretroviral Therapy/INSIGHT; DAD Study Groups. Use of nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors and risk of myocardial infarction in HIV-infected patients. AIDS, 2008;22:F17-F24.
26. Obel N, Farkas D, Kronborg G, Larsen C, Pedersen G, Riis A, et al. Abacavir and risk of myocardial infarction in HIV-infected patients on highly active antiretroviral therapy: a population-based nationwide cohort study. HIV Med 2010; 11:130-136.
27. Martin A, Bloch M, Amin J, Baker D, Cooper DA, Emery S, et al. Simplification of antiretroviral therapy with tenofovir-emtri-citabine or abacavir-lamivudine: a randomized, 96-week trial. Clin Infect Dis 2009; 49:1591-1601.
28. Brothers CH, Hernandez JE, Cutrell AG, Curtis L, Ait-Khaled M, Bowlin SJ, et al. Risk of myocardial infarction and abacavir therapy: no increased risk across 52 GlaxoSmithKline-spon-sored clinical trials in adult subjects. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2009; 51:20-28.
29. Benson C, Ribaudo H, Zheng E, Koletar S, Smurzynski M, Bosch R, et al. No association of abacavir use with risk of myocardial infarction or severe cardiovascular disease events: results from ACTG A5001 [abstract 721.]. 16th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections; Montréal, Canada; 8-11 February 2009.
30. Bedimo R, Westfall A, Drechsler H, Tebas P. Abacavir use and risk of acute myocardial infarction and cerebrovascular disease in the HAART era [abstract MOAB202.]. 5th IAS Conference on HIV Pathogenesis, Treatment and Prevention. Capetown, South Africa; 19-22 July 2009.
31. Smith KY, Patel P, Fine D, Bellos N, Sloan L, Lackey P, et al. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-matched, multicenter trial of abacavir/lamivudine or tenofovir/emtricitabine with lopinavir/ritonavir for initial HIV treatment. AIDS 2009; 23:1547-1556.
32. Maggi P, Lillo A, Perilli F, Maserati R, Chirianni A. Colour-Doppler ultrasonography of carotid vessels in patients treated with antiretroviral therapy: a comparative study. AIDS 2004; 18:1023-1028.
33. Jericò C, Knobel H, Calvo N, Sorli ML, Guelar A, Gimeno-Bayòn JL, et al. Subclinical carotid atherosclerosis in HIV-infected patients: role of combination antiretroviral therapy. Stroke 2006; 37:812-817.
34. Lai S, Lai H, Celentano DD, Vlahov D, Ren S, Margolick J, et al. Factors associated with accelerated atherosclerosis in HIV-1-infected persons treated with protease inhibitors. AIDS Patient Care STDS 2003; 17:211-219.
35. Maggi P, Perilli F, Lillo A, Gargiulo M, Ferraro S, Grisorio B, et al. Rapid progression of carotid lesions in HAART-treated HIV-1 patients. Atherosclerosis 2007; 192:407-412.
36. De Saint Martin L, Vandhuick O, Guillo P, Bellein V, Bressoll-ette L, Roudaut N, et al. Premature atherosclerosis in HIV-positive patients and cumulated time of exposure to anti-retroviral therapy (SHIVA study). Atherosclerosis 2006; 185: 361-367.
37. Lorenz MW, Stephan C, Harmjanz A, Staszewski S, Buehler A, Bickel M, et al. Both long-term HIV infection and highly active antiretroviral therapy are independent risk factors for early carotid atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis 2008; 196:720-726.
38. Grunfeld C, Delaney JA, Wanke C, Currier JS, Scherzer R, Biggs ML, et al. Preclinical atherosclerosis due to HIV infection: carotid intima-media thickness measurements from the FRAM study. AIDS 2009; 23:1841-1849.
39. Kingsley LA, Cuervo-Rojas J, Munoz A, Palella FJ, Post W, Witt MD, et al. Subclinical coronary atherosclerosis, HIV infection and antiretroviral therapy: multicenter AIDS Cohort study. AIDS 2008; 22:1589-1599.
40. Sankatsing RR, Wit FW, Vogel M, de Groot E, Brinkman K, Rockstroh JK, et al. Increased carotid intima-media thickness in HIV patients treated with protease inhibitors as compared to nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors. Atherosclerosis 2009; 202:589-595.
41. Van Vonderen MG, Smulders YM, Stehouwer CD, Danner SA, Gundy CM, Vos F, et al. Carotid intima-media thickness and arterial stiffness in HIV-infected patients: the role of HIV, antiretroviral therapy, and lipodystrophy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2009; 50:153-161.
42. McComsey GA, O'Riordan M, Hazen SL, El-Beijani D, Bhatt S, Brennan ML, et al. Increased carotid intima-media thickness and cardiac biomarkers in HIV infected children. AIDS 2007; 21:921-927.
43. Maggi P, Perilli F, Lillo A, Volpe A, Pastore G, Regina G. B-mode ultrasound study of carotid plaques in HIV-positive patients to detect the presence of inflammatory endothelial lesions. Curr HIV Res 2009; 7:541-546.
44. Maggi P, Perilli F, Lillo A, Carito V, Epifani G, Bellacosa C, et al. An ultrasound-based comparative study on carotid plaques in HIV-positive patients vs. atherosclerotic and arter-itis patients: atherosclerotic of inflammatory lesions? Coronary Artery Dis 2007; 18:23-29.
45. Coll B, Parra S, Alonso-Villaverde C, Aragonés G, Montero M, Camps J, et al. The role of immunity and inflammation in the progression of atherosclerosis in patients with HIV infection. Stroke 2007; 38:2477-2484.
46. Calza L, Verucchi G, Pocaterra D, Pavoni M, Alfieri A, Cicog-nani A, et al. Cardiovascular risk factors and ultrasound evaluation of carotid atherosclerosis in patients with HIV-1 infection. Int J STD AIDS 2009; 20:683-689.
47. Depairon M, Chessex S, Sudre P, Rodondi N, Doser N, Chave JP, et al. Premature atherosclerosis in HIV-infected individuals-focus on protease inhibitor therapy. AIDS 2001; 15:329-334.
48. Talwani R, Falusi OM, Mendes de Leon CF, Nerad JL, Rich S, Proia LA, et al. Electron beam computed tomography for assessment of coronary artery disease in HIV-infected men receiving antiretroviral therapy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2002; 30:191-195.
49. Hsue PY, Lo JC, Franklin A, Bolger AF, Martin JN, Deeks SG, et al. Progression of atherosclerosis as assessed by carotid intima-media thickness in patients with HIV infection. Circulation 2004; 109:1603-1608.
50. Mercié P, Thiébaut R, Aurillac-Lavignolle V, Pellegrin JL, Yvorra-Vives MC, Cipriano C, et al. Carotid intima-media thickness is slightly increased over time in HIV-1-infected patients. HIV Med 2005; 6:380-387.
51. Currier JS, Kendall MA, Zackin R, Henry WK, Alston-Smith B, Torriani FJ, et al. Carotid artery intima-media thickness and HIV infection: traditional risk factors overshadow impact of protease inhibitor exposure. AIDS 2005; 19:927-933.
52. Mangili A, Gerrior J, Tang AM, O'Leary DH, Polak JK, Schaefer EJ, et al. Risk of cardiovascular disease in a cohort of HIV-infected adults: a study using carotid intima-media thickness and coronary artery calcium score. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 43:1482-1489.
53. Lebech AM, Wiinberg N, Kristoffersen US, Hesse B, Petersen CL, Gerstolft J, et al. Carotid intima-media thickness in HIV patients treated with antiretroviral therapy. Clin Physiol Funct Imaging 2007; 27:173-179.
54. BongiovanniM, Casana M, CicconiP, PisacretaM, Codemo R, Pelucchi M, et al. Predictive factors of vascular intima media thickness in HIV-positive subjects. J Antimicrob Chemother 2008; 61:195-199.
55. Kaplan RC, Kingsley LA, Gange SJ, Benning L, Jacobson LP, Lazar J, et al. Low CD4R T-cell count is a major atherosclerosis risk factor in HIV-infected women and men. AIDS 2008; 22:1615-1624.
56. Hsue PY, Hunt PW, SchnellA,Craig KalapusS, HohR,Ganz P, et al. Role of viral replication, antiretroviral therapy, and immunodeficiency in HIV-associated atherosclerosis. AIDS 2009; 23:1059-1067.
57. Hulten E, Mitchell J, Scally J, Gibbs B, Villines TC. HIV positivity, protease inhibitor exposure, and subclinical atherosclerosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Heart 2009; 95:1826-1835.
58. De Gaetano Donati K, Rabagliati R, Iacoviello L, Cauda R. HIV infection, HAART, and endothelial adhesion molecules: current perspectives. Lancet Infect Dis 2004; 4:213-222.
59. Murphy R, Costagliola D. Increased cardiovascular risk in HIV infection: drugs, virus and immunity. AIDS 2008; 22:1625-1627.
60. Koenig W, Khuseyinova N. Biomarkers of atherosclerotic plaque instability and rupture. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2007; 27:15-26.
61. van Leuven SI, Franssen R, Kastelein JJ, Levi M, Stroes ES, Tak PP. Systemic inflammation as a risk factor for atherothrom-bosis. Rheumatology 2008; 47:3-7.
62. Zakynthinos E, Pappa N. Inflammatory biomarkers in coronary artery disease. J Cardiol 2009; 53:317-333.
63. Melendez MM, McNurlan MA, Mynarcik DC, Khan S, Gelato MC. Endothelial adhesion molecules are associated with inflammation in subjects with HIV disease. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 46:775-780.
64. Triant V, Meigs JB, Grinspoon SK. Association of C-reactive protein and HIV infection with acute myocardial infarction. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2009; 51:268-273.
65. Packard RR, Libby P. Inflammation in atherosclerosis: from vascular biology to biomarker discovery and risk prediction. Clin Chem 2008; 54:24-38.
66. Stefano GB, Salzet M, Bilfinger TV. Long-term exposure of human blood vessels to HIV gp120, morphine, and ananda-mide increases endothelial adhesion of monocytes: uncoupling of nitric oxide release. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1998; 31:862-868.
67. Ren Z, Yao Q, Chen C. HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein 120 increases intercellular adhesion molecule-1 expression by human endothelial cells. Lab Invest 2002; 82:245-255.
68. Hwang SJ, Ballantyne CM, Sharrett AR, Smith LC, Davis CE, Gotto AM Jr, et al. Circulating adhesion molecules VCAM-1, ICAM-1, and E-selectin in carotid atherosclerosis and incident coronary heart disease cases: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study. Circulation 1997; 96:4219-4225.
69. Jager A, Van Hinsbergh VW, Kostense PJ, Emeis JJ, Nijpels G, Dekker JM, et al. Increased levels of soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule I are associated with risk of cardiovascular mortality in type 2 diabetes: the Hoorn study. Diabetes 2000; 49:485-491.
70. Paladugu R, Fu W, Conklin BS, Lin PH, Lumsden AB, Yao Q, et al. HIV Tat protein causes endothelial dysfunction in porcine coronary arteries. J Vasc Surg 2003; 38:549-555.
71. DhawanS, Puri RK, KumarA, DuplanH,Masson JM, Aggarwal BB. Human immunodeficiency virus-1-tat protein induces the cell surface expression of endothelial leukocyte adhesion molecule-1, vascular cell adhesion molecule-1, and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 in human endothelial cells. Blood 1997; 90:1535-1544.
72. Liu K, Chi DS, Li C, Hall HK, Milhorn DM, Krishnaswamy G. HIV-1 Tat protein-induced VCAM-1 expression in human pulmonary artery endothelial cells and its signaling. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2005; 289:L252-L260.
73. Khan NA, Di Cello F, Stins M, Kim KS. Gp120-mediated cytotoxicity of human brain microvascular endothelial cells is dependent on p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase activation. J Neurovirol 2007; 13:242-251.
74. Huang MB, Bond VC. Involvement ofprotein kinase C inHIV-1 gp120-induced apoptosis in primary endothelium. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2000; 25:375-389.
75. Pace GW, Leaf CD. The role of oxidative stress in HIV disease. Free Radic Biol Med 1995; 19:523-528.
76. Baruchel S, Wainberg WA. The role of oxidative stress in disease progression in individuals infected by the human immunodeficiency virus. J Leukoc Biol 1992; 52:111-114.
77. Galea P, Vermot-Desroches C, Le Contel C, Wijdenes J, Chermann JC. Circulating cell adhesion molecules in HIV-1-infected patients as indicator markers for AIDS progression. Res Immunol 1999; 148:109-117.
78. Farrugia PM, Lucariello R, Coppola JT. Human immunodeficiency virus and atherosclerosis. Cardiol Rev 2009; 17:211-215.
79. Calza L, Pocaterra D, Pavoni M, Colangeli V, Manfredi R, Verucchi G, et al. Plasma levels of VCAM-1, ICAM-1, E-selectin, and P-selectin in 99 HIV-positive patients versus 51 HIV-negative healthy controls. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2009; 50:430-432.
80. Calmy A, Gayet-Ageron A, Montecucco F, Nguyen A, Mach F, Burger F, et al. HIV increases markers of cardiovascular risk: results from a randomized, treatment interruption trial. AIDS 2009; 23:929-939.
81. Kline ER, Sutliff RL. The roles of HIV-1 proteins and antire-troviral drug therapy in HIV-1-associated endothelial dysfunction. J Investig Med 2008; 56:752-769.
82. Vasiliver-Shamis G, Tuen M, Wu TW, Starr T, Cameron TO, Thomson R, et al. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 envelope gp120 induces a stop signal and virological synapse formation in noninfected CD4R T cells. J Virol 2008; 82:9445-9457.
83. Takano Y, Shimokado K, Hata Y, Yoshida M. HIV envelope protein gp120-triggered CD4R T-cell adhesion to vascular endothelium is regulated via CD4 and CXCR4 receptors. Biochim Biophys Acta 2007; 1772:549-555.
84. Blum A, Hadas V, Burke M, Yust I, Kessler A. Viral load of the human immunodeficiency virus could be an independent risk factor for endothelial dysfunction. Clin Cardiol 2005; 28:149-153.
85. Solages A, Vita JA, Thornton DJ, Murray J, Heeren T, Craven DE, et al. Endothelial function in HIV-infected persons. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 42:1325-1332.
86. Monsuez JJ, Charniot JC, Escaut L, Teicher E, Wyplosz B, Couzigou C, et al. HIV-associated vascular diseases: structural and functional changes, clinical implications. Int J Cardiol 2009; 133:293-306.
87. Torriani FJ, Komarow L, Parker RA, Cotter BR, Currier JS, Dubé MP, et al. Endothelial function in human immunodeficiency virus-infected antiretroviral-naïve subjects before and after starting potent antiretroviral therapy: the ACTG (AIDS Clinical Trials Group) study 5152s. J Am Coll Cardiol 2008; 52:569-576.
88. Ross AC, Rizk N, O'Riordan MA, Dogra V, El-Bejjani D, Storer N, et al. Relationship between inflammatory markers, en-dothelial activation markers, and carotid intima-media thickness in HIV-infected patients receiving antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis 2009; 49:1119-1127.
89. Calza L, Manfredi R, Chiodo F. Dyslipidaemia associated with antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected patients. J Antimicrob Chemother 2004; 53:10-14.
90. Grinspoon SK, Grunfeld C, Kotler DP, Currier JS, Lundgren JD, Dubè MP, et al., State of the science conference. Initiative to decrease cardiovascular risk and increase quality of care for patients living with HIV/AIDS. Executive summary. Circulation 2008; 118:198-210.
91. Riddler SA, Smit E, Cole SR, Li R, Chmiel JS, Dobs A, et al. Impact of HIV infection and HAART on serum lipids in men. JAMA 2003; 289:2978-2982.
92. Riddler SA, Li X, Chu H, Kingsley LA, Dobs A, Evans R, et al. Longitudinal changes in serum lipids among HIV-infected men on highly active antiretroviral therapy. HIV Med 2007; 8:280-287.
93. Riddler SA, Li X, Otvos W, Post W, Palella F, Kingsley L, et al. Antiretroviral therapy is associated with an atherogenic lipo-protein phenotype among HIV-1-infected men in the Multi-center AIDS Cohort study.J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2008; 48:281-288.
94. Carr A, Samaras K, Cooper CD. Pathogenesis of HIV-1 protease inhibitor-associated peripheral lipodystrophy, hyperlipidemia, and insulin resistance. Lancet 1998; 351: 1881-1883.
95. Carr A. HIV lipodystrophy: risk factors, pathogenesis, diagnostic and management. AIDS 2003; 17 (Suppl 1):S161-S168.
96. Huy DY. Effects of HIV protease inhibitor therapy on lipid metabolism. Prog Lipid Res 2003; 42:81-92.
97. Thomas CM, Smart EJ. How HIV protease inhibitors promote atherosclerotic lesion formation. Curr Opin Lipidol 2007; 18:561-565.
98. Fisher SD, Miller TL, Lipshultz SE. Impact of HIV and highly active antiretroviral therapy on leukocyte adhesion molecules, arterial inflammation, dyslipidemia, and atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis 2006; 185:1-11.
99. Sutliff RL, Dikalov S, Weiss D, Parker J, Raidel S, Racine AK, et al. Nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors impair en-dothelium-dependent relaxation by increasing superoxide. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2002; 283:H2363-H2370.
100. Jiang B, Hebert VY, Zavecz JH, Dugas TR. Antiretrovirals induce direct endothelial dysfunction in vivo. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2006; 42:391-395.
101. CoulsonR,Johnson RA, Olsson RA, Cooper DR, Scheinman SJ. Adenosine stimulates phosphate and glucose transport in opossum kidney epithelial cells. Am J Physiol 1991; 260: F921-F928.
102. Hsue PY, Hunt PW, Wu Y, Schnell A, Ho JE, Hatano H, et al. Association of abacavir and impaired endothelial function in treated and suppressed HIV-infected patients. AIDS 2009; 23:2021-2027.
103. Parker WB, Shaddix SC, Bowdon BJ, Rose LM, Vince R, Shannon WM, et al. Metabolism of carbovir: a potent inhibitor of human immunodeficiency virus type 1, and its effect on cellular metabolism. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1993; 37:1004-1009.
104. Hammond E, McKinnon E, Mallal S, Nolan D. Longitudinal evaluation of cardiovascular disease-associated biomarkers in relation to abacavir therapy. AIDS 2008; 22:2540-2543.
105. Martinez E, Larrousse M, Perez I, Lonca' M, Podzamczer D, Gutierrez F, et al. No evidence for recent abacavir/lamivudine use in promoting inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, hy-percoagulability, or insulin resistance in virologically suppressed HIV-infected patients: a substudy of the BICOMBO randomized clinical trial [abstract MOAB203]. 5th IAS Conference on HIV Pathogenesis, Treatment and Prevention. Cape Town, South Africa; 19-22 July 2009.
106. Nolan D, Watts GF, Herrmann SE, French MA, John M, Mallal S. Endothelial function in HIV-infected patients receiving protease inhibitor therapy: does immune competence affect cardiovascular risk? QJM 2003; 96:825-832.
107. Lichtner M, Cuomo MR, Rossi R, Strano S, Massetti AP, Mastroianni CM, et al. Increased carotid intima media thickness is associated with depletion of circulating myeloid dendritic cells in HIV-infected patients on suppressive anti-retroviral treatment. Atherosclerosis 2009; 204:e1-e3.
108. Wilson PW, D'Agostino RB, Levy D, Belanger AM, Silbershatz H, Kannel WB. Prediction of coronary heart disease using risk factor categories. Circulation 1998; 97:1837-1847.
109. Ferrario M, Chiodini P, Chambless LE, Cesana G, Vanuzzo D, Panico S, et al., for the CUORE Project Research Group. Prediction of coronary events in a low incidence population: assessing accuracy of the CUORE Cohort Study prediction equation. Int J Epidemiol 2005; 34:413-421.
110. Law MG, Friis-Moller N, El-Sadr WM, Weber R, Reiss P, D'Arminio-Monforte A, et al. The use of the Framingham equation to predict myocardial infarctions in HIV-infected patients: comparison with observed events in the D:A:D study. HIV Med 2006; 7:218-230.
111. Schambelan M, Wilson PW, Yarasheski KE, Cade WT, Davila-Roman VG, D'Agostino RB, et al. Development of appropriate coronary heart disease risk prediction models in HIV-infected patients. Circulation 2008; 118:e48-e53.
112. Bergersen BM, Sandvik L, Bruun JN, Tonstad S. Elevated Framingham risk score in HIV-positive patients on highly active antiretroviral therapy: results from a Norwegian study of 721 subjects. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2004; 23:625-
113. May M, Sterne JA, Shipley M, Brunner E, d'Agostino R, Whincup P, et al. A coronary heart disease risk model for predicting the effect of potent antiretroviral therapy in HIV-1 infected men. Int J Epidemiol 2007; 36:1309-1318.
114. Calza L, Manfredi R, Pocaterra D, Chiodo F. Risk of premature atherosclerosis and ischemic heart disease associated with HIV infection and antiretroviral therapy. J Infect 2008; 57:16-32.
115. Dubé MP, Stein JH, Aberg JA, Fichtenbaum CJ, Gerber JG, Tashima KT, et al. Guidelines for the evaluation and management of dyslipidemia in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected adults receiving antiretroviral therapy: recommendations of the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Disease Society of America and the Adult AIDS Clinical Trials Group. Clin Infect Dis 2003; 37:613-627.
116. Carosi G, Quiros-Roldan E, Torti C, Antinori A, Bevilacqua M, Bonadonna RC, et al. First Italian Consensus Statement on Diagnosis, Prevention and Treatment of Cardiovascular complications in HIV-infected patients in the HAART era (2006). Infection 2007; 35:134-142.
117. Grundy SM, Cleeman JI, Merz NB, Brewer HB Jr, Clark LT, Hunninghake DB, et al. Implications of recent clinical trials for the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III Guidelines. Circulation 2004; 110:227-239.
118. Lundgren JD, Battegay M, Behrens G, De Wit S, Guaraldi G, Katlama C, et al. European AIDS Clinical Society (EACS) guidelines on the prevention and management of metabolic diseases in HIV. HIV Med 2008; 9:72-81.
119. European AIDS Clinical Society (EACS). Guidelines. Prevention and management of noninfectious comorbidities in HIV. http://www. europeanaidsclinicalsociety.org/guidelinespdf/2-Non-Infectious-Co-Morbidities- in-HIV.pdf.
120. Gritz ER, Vidrine DJ, Lazev AB, Amick BC III, Arduino RC. Smoking behaviour in a low-income multiethnic HIV/AIDS population. Nicotine Tob Res 2004; 6:71-77.
121. Jones SP, Doran DA, Leatt PB, MaherB,PirmohamedM.Short-term exercise training improves body composition and hy-perlipidaemia in HIV-positive individuals with lipodystrophy. AIDS 2001; 15:2049-2051.
122. Calza L, Manfredi R, Colangeli V, Tampellini L, Sebastiani T, Pocaterra D, et al. Substitution of nevirapine or efavirenz for protease inhibitor versus lipid-lowering therapy for the management of dyslipidaemia. AIDS 2005; 19:1051-1058.
123. Moyle GJ, Sabin CA, Cartledge J, Johnson M, Wilkins E, Churchill D, et al. A randomized comparative trial of teno-fovir DF or abacavir as replacement for a thymidine analogue in persons with lipoatrophy. AIDS 2006; 20:2043-2050.
124. Gatell J, Salmon-Ceron D, Lazzarin A, Van Wijngaerden E, Antunes F, Leen C, et al. Efficacy and safety of atazanavir-based highly active antiretroviral therapy in patients with virologic suppression switched from a stable, boosted or unboosted protease inhibitor treatment regimen: the SWAN study (AI424-097) 48-week results. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 44:1484-1492.
125. Cocohoba J. The SWITCHMRK studies: substitution of lopi-navir/ritonavir with raltegravir in HIV-positive individuals. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2009; 7:1159-1163.
126. Calza L, Manfredi R, Chiodo F. Statins and fibrates for the treatment of hyperlipidaemia in HIV-infected patients receiving HAART. AIDS 2003; 17:851-859.
127. McGoldrickC,Leen CL. The management ofdyslipidaemias in antiretroviral-treated HIV infection: a systematic review. HIV Med 2007; 8:325-334.
128. Calza L. Long-term use of rosuvastatin: a critical risk benefit appraisal and comparison with other antihyperlipidemics. Drug Health Patient Saf 2009; 1:25-33.
129. Calza L, Colangeli V, Manfredi R, Legnani G, Tampellini L, Pocaterra D, et al. Rosuvastatin for the treatment of hyperli-pidaemia in HIV-infected patients receiving protease inhibitors: a pilot study. AIDS 2005; 19:1103-1105.
130. van der Lee M, Sankatsing R, Schippers E, Vogel M, Fätken-heuer G, van der Ven A, et al. Pharmacokinetics and phar-macodynamics of combined use of lopinavir-ritonavir and rosuvastatin in HIV-infected patients. Antivir Ther 2007; 12:1127-1132.
131. Calza L, Manfredi R, Chiodo F. Use of fibrates in the management of hyperlipidaemia in HIV-infected patients receiving HAART. Infection 2002; 30:26-31.
132. Manfredi R, Calza L, Chiodo F. Polyunsaturated ethyl esters of n-3 fatty acids in HIV-infected patients with moderate hyper-triglyceridemia: comparison with dietary and lifestyle changes, and fibrate therapy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2004; 36:878-880.
133. Hadigan C. Diabetes, insulin resistance, and HIV. Curr Infect Dis Rep 2006; 8:69-75.
134. Brown TT, Cole SR, Li X, Kingsley LA, Palella FJ, Riddler SA, et al. Antiretroviral therapy and the prevalence and incidence of diabetes mellitus in the multicenter AIDS cohort study. Arch Intern Med 2005; 165:1179-1184.
135. Hadigan C, Corcoran C, Basgoz N, Davis B, Sax P, Grinspoon S. Metformin in the treatment of HIV lipodystrophy syndrome: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2000; 284: 472-477.
136. Hadigan C, Rabe J, Grinspoon S. Sustained benefits of met-formin therapy on markers of cardiovascular risk in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients with fat redistribution and insulin resistance. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002; 87:4611-4615.
137. Van Vijk JP, De Koning EJ, Cabezas MC, Roodt J, Joven J, Rabelink TJ, et al. Comparison of rosiglitazone and metformin for treating HIV lipodystrophy. Ann Intern Med 2005; 143: 337-346.
138. Sutinen J, Hakkinen K, Westerbacka J. Rosiglitazone in the treatment of HAART-associated lipodystrophy: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study. Antivir Ther 2003; 8:199-207.
139. Carr A, Workman C, Carey D, Rogers G, Martin A, Baker D, et al. No effect of rosiglitazone for treatment of HIV-1 lipoatrophy: randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2004; 363:429-438.
140. Oette M, Kurowski M, Feldt T, Kroidl A, Sagir A, Vogt C, et al. Impact of rosiglitazone treatment on the bioavailability of antiretroviral compounds in HIV-positive patients. J Antimi-crob Chemother 2005; 56:416-419.
141. Aberg JA. Cardiovascular complications in HIV management: past, present, and future. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2009; 50:54-64.