Risk of premature atherosclerosis and ischemic heart disease associated with HIV infection and antiretroviral therapy

Journal of Infection

Volumn 57, Issue 1, 2008, Pages 16-32

  Calza, Leonardo ^a   Manfredi, Roberto ^a   Pocaterra, Daria ^a   Chiodo, Francesco ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BOLOGNA   (Italy)

Author keywords

Antiretroviral therapy; Cardiovascular diseases; Dyslipidaemia; HIV infection; Insulin resistance

Indexed keywords

2,4 THIAZOLIDINEDIONE DERIVATIVE; ABACAVIR; AMPRENAVIR; ANTILIPEMIC AGENT; ANTIRETROVIRUS AGENT; ATAZANAVIR; ATORVASTATIN; DIDANOSINE; EFAVIRENZ; FIBRIC ACID DERIVATIVE; FLUINDOSTATIN; GLUCOSE; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; INDINAVIR; INSULIN SENSITIZING AGENT; LIPID; LOPINAVIR; NELFINAVIR; NUCLEOSIDE ANALOG; PRAVASTATIN; PROTEINASE INHIBITOR; RITONAVIR; RNA DIRECTED DNA POLYMERASE INHIBITOR; ROSUVASTATIN; SAQUINAVIR; SIMVASTATIN; STAVUDINE; TENOFOVIR; UNINDEXED DRUG; ZIDOVUDINE;

ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CLINICAL PRACTICE; DIABETES MELLITUS; DIET; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISORDERS OF CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM; DRUG BLOOD LEVEL; DRUG METABOLISM; DRUG SUBSTITUTION; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; DYSLIPIDEMIA; ENDOTHELIAL DYSFUNCTION; FAT REDISTRIBUTION SYNDROME; GLUCOSE HOMEOSTASIS; HEART INFARCTION; HIGHLY ACTIVE ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA; HYPERGLYCEMIA; HYPERINSULINEMIA; HYPERLIPIDEMIA; HYPERTRIGLYCERIDEMIA; IMMUNOLOGY; INSULIN RESISTANCE; ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASE; LIFE EXPECTANCY; LIFESTYLE; LIFESTYLE MODIFICATION; LIPID BLOOD LEVEL; LIPOATROPHY; LIPODYSTROPHY; METABOLIC DISORDER; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; MITOCHONDRIAL TOXICITY; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; PROGNOSIS; RECOMMENDED DRUG DOSE; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; SMOKING CESSATION; VIROLOGY;

ADULT; ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY, HIGHLY ACTIVE; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; HIV INFECTIONS; HIV-1; HIV-ASSOCIATED LIPODYSTROPHY SYNDROME; HUMANS; MALE; MIDDLE AGED; MYOCARDIAL ISCHEMIA; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 46149096211     PISSN: 01634453     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jinf.2008.02.006     Document Type: Review

References (140)

1. Palella F.J., Delaney K.M., Moorman A.C., et al. Declining morbidity and mortality among patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. HIV Outpatient Study Investigators. N Engl J Med 338 (1998) 853-860
2. Carr A., Samaras K., Burton S., et al. A syndrome of peripheral lipodystrophy, hyperlipidaemia and insulin resistance in patients receiving HIV protease inhibitors. AIDS 12 (1998) F51-F58
3. Holmberg S.D., Moorman A.C., Williamson J.M., et al. Protease inhibitors and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with HIV-1. Lancet 360 (2002) 1747-1748
4. Friis-Møller N., Sabin C.A., Weber R., et al. for the The Data Collection on Adverse Events of Anti-HIV Drugs (DAD) Study Group. Combination antiretroviral therapy and the risk of myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 349 (2003) 1993-2003
5. Koppel K., Bratt G., Schulman S., Bylund H., and Sandstrom E. Hypofibrinolytic state in HIV-1-infected patients treated with protease inhibitor-containing highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 29 (2002) 441-449
6. Kamin D.S., and Grinspoon S.K. Cardiovascular disease in HIV-positive patients. AIDS 19 (2005) 641-652
7. Sattler F.R., Qian D., Louie S., et al. Elevated blood pressure in subjects with lipodystrophy. AIDS 15 (2001) 2001-2010
8. Gazzaruso C., Bruno R., Garzaniti A., et al. Hypertension among HIV patients: prevalence and relationships to insulin resistance and metabolic syndrome. J Hypertens 21 (2003) 1377-1382
9. Bergersen B.M., Sandvik L., Dunlop O., Birkeland K., and Bruun J.N. Prevalence of hypertension in HIV-positive patients on highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) compared with HAART-naïve and HIV-negative controls: results from a Norwegian study on 721 patients. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 22 (2003) 731-736
10. Calza L., Manfredi R., and Chiodo F. Dyslipidaemia associated with antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected patients. J Antimicrob Chemother 53 (2004) 10-14
11. Friis-Møller N., and Westring Worm S. Can the risk of cardiovascular disease in HIV-infected patients be estimated from conventional risk prediction tools?. Clin Infect Dis 45 (2007) 1082-1084
12. Lichtenstein K.A., Ward D.J., Moorman A.C., et al. Clinical assessment of HIV-associated lipodystrophy in an ambulatory population. AIDS 15 (2001) 1389-1398
13. Miller J., Carr A., Emery S., et al. HIV lipodystrophy: prevalence, severity and correlates of risk in Australia. HIV Med 4 (2003) 293-301
14. Calza L., Manfredi R., and Chiodo F. Hyperlipidaemia in patients with HIV-1 infection receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy: epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical course and management. Int J Antimicrob Ag 22 (2003) 89-99
15. Lichtenstein K.A. Redefining lipodystrophy syndrome. Risks and impact on clinical decision making. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 39 (2005) 395-400
16. Grinspoon S., and Carr A. Cardiovascular risk and body-fat abnormalities in HIV-infected adults. N Engl J Med 352 (2005) 48-62
17. Carr A., Samaras K., Thorisdottir A., Kaufmann G.R., Chisholm D.J., and Cooper D.A. Diagnosis, prediction, and natural course of HIV-1 protease-inhibitor-associated lipodystrophy, hyperlipidaemia, and diabetes mellitus: a cohort study. Lancet 353 (1999) 2093-2099
18. Gervasoni C., Ridolfo A.L., Trifiro G., et al. Redistribution of body fat in HIV-infected women undergoing combined antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 13 (1999) 465-471
19. Carr A., Emery S., Law M., et al. An objective case definition of lipodystrophy in HIV-infected adults: a case-control study. Lancet 361 (2003) 726-735
20. Mallon P.W., Miller J., Cooper D.A., and Carr A. Prospective evaluation of the effects of antiretroviral therapy on body composition in HIV-1 infected men starting therapy. AIDS 17 (2003) 971-979
21. Martinez E., Mocroft A., Garcia-Viejo M.A., et al. Risk of lipodystrophy in HIV-1-infected patients treated with protease inhibitors: a prospective cohort study. Lancet 357 (2001) 592-598
22. Heath K.V., Hogg R.S., Singer J., Chan K.J., O'Shaughnessy M.V., and Montaner J.S. Antiretroviral treatment patterns and incident HIV-associated morphologic and lipid abnormalities in a population-based cohort. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 30 (2002) 440-447
23. Bastard J.P., Caron M., Vidal H., et al. Association between altered expression of adipogenic factor SREBP1 in lipoatrophic adipose tissue from HIV-1-infected patients and abnormal adipocyte differentiation and insulin resistance. Lancet 359 (2002) 1026-1031
24. Caron M., Auclair M., Vigoroux C., Glorian M., Forest C., and Capeau J. The HIV protease inhibitor indinavir impairs sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1 intranuclear localization, inhibits preadipocyte differentiation, and induces insulin resistance. Diabetes 50 (2001) 1378-1388
25. Dowell P., Flexner C., Kwiterovich P.O., and Lane M.D. Suppression of preadipocyte differentiation and promotion of adipocyte death by HIV protease inhibitors. J Biol Chem 275 (2000) 41325-41332
26. Lenhard J.M., Furfine E.S., Jain R.G., et al. HIV protease inhibitors block adipogenesis and increase lipolysis in vitro. Antiviral Res 47 (2000) 121-129
27. Caron M., Auclair M., Sterlingot H., Kornprobst M., and Capeau J. Some HIV protease inhibitors alter lamin A/C maturation and stability, SREBP-1 nuclear localization and adipocyte differentiation. AIDS 17 (2003) 2437-2444
28. Reiss P., Casula M., De Ronde A., Weverling G., Goudsmit J., and Lange J.M. Greater and more rapid depletion of mitochondrial DNA in blood of patients treated with dual (zidovudine + didanosine or zidovudine + zalcitabine) vs. single (zidovudine) nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors. HIV Med 5 (2004) 11-14
29. Nolan D., Hammond E., Martin A., et al. Mitochondrial DNA depletion and morphologic changes in adipocytes associated with nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor therapy. AIDS 17 (2003) 1329-1338
30. Hadigan C., Borgonha S., Rabe J., Young V., and Grinspoon S. Increased rates of lipolysis among human immunodeficiency virus-infected men receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy. Metabolism 51 (2002) 1143-1147
31. Roche R., Poizot-Martin I., Yazidi C.M., et al. Effects of antiretroviral drug combinations on the differentiation of adipocytes. AIDS 16 (2002) 13-20
32. Balasubramanyam A., Mersmann H.J., Jahoor F., et al. Effects of transgenic expression of HIV-1 viral protein R (Vpr) on lipid and energy metabolism in mice. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab (2006) Aug 1 [Epub ahead of print]
33. Kissebah A.H., and Krakower G.R. Regional adiposity and morbidity. Physiol Rev 74 (1994) 761-811
34. Bjorntorp P. "Portal" adipose tissue as a generator of risk factors for cardiovascular disease and diabetes. Arteriosclerosis 10 (1990) 493-496
35. Mertens I., Van Der Planken M., Corthouts B., et al. Visceral fat is a determinant of PAI-1 activity in diabetic and non-diabetic overweight and obese women. Horm Metab Res 33 (2001) 602-607
36. Hadigan C., Meigs J.B., Wilson P.W., et al. Prediction of coronary heart disease risk in HIV-infected patients with fat redistribution. Clin Infect Dis 36 (2003) 909-916
37. Friis-Møller N., Weber R., Reiss P., et al. Cardiovascular disease risk factors in HIV patients-association with antiretroviral therapy. Results from the DAD study. AIDS 17 (2003) 1179-1193
38. Tsiodras S., Mantzoros C., Hammer S., and Samore M. Effects of protease inhibitors on hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia, and lipodystrophy: a 5-year cohort study. Arch Intern Med 160 (2000) 2050-2056
39. Riddler S.A., Smit E., Cole S.R., et al. Impact of HIV infection and HAART on serum lipids in men. JAMA 289 (2003) 2978-2982
40. Purnell J.Q., Zambon A., Knopp R.H., et al. Effect of ritonavir on lipids and post-heparin lipase activities in normal subjects. AIDS 14 (2000) 51-57
41. Lee G.A., Seneviratne T., Noor M.A., et al. The metabolic effects of lopinavir/ritonavir in HIV-negative men. AIDS 18 (2004) 641-649
42. Sanne I., Piliero P., Squires K., Thiry A., and Schnittman S. Results of a phase 2 clinical trial at 48 weeks (AI424-007): a dose-ranging, safety, and efficacy comparative trial of atazanavir at three doses in combination with didanosine and stavudine in antiretroviral-naive subjects. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 32 (2003) 18-29
43. Parker RA, Wang S, Mulvey R, et al. Differential effects of HIV protease inhibitors on proteosome, gene expression, and lipogenesis provide a mechanism for PI-associated dyslipidaemia and atazanavir's favourable lipid profile. Proceedings of the 11th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. San Francisco, USA, 2004.
44. Liang J.S., Distler O., Cooper D.A., et al. HIV protease inhibitors protect apolipoprotein B from degradation by the proteasome: a potential mechanism for protease inhibitor-induced hyperlipidemia. Nat Med 7 (2001) 1327-1331
45. Riddle T.M., Schildmeyer N.M., Phan C., Fichtenbaum C.J., and Hui D.Y. The HIV protease inhibitor ritonavir increases lipoprotein production and has no effect on lipoprotein clearance in mice. J Lipid Res 43 (2002) 1458-1463
46. Riddle T.M., Kuhel D.G., Woollett L.A., Fichtenbaum C.J., and Hui D.Y. HIV protease inhibitor induces fatty acid and sterol biosynthesis in liver and adipose tissues due to the accumulation of activated sterol regulatory element-binding proteins in the nucleus. J Biol Chem 276 (2001) 37514-37519
47. Zaera M.G., Miro O., Pedrol E., et al. Mitochondrial involvement in antiretroviral therapy-related lipodystrophy. AIDS 15 (2001) 1643-1651
48. Balasubramanyam A., Sekhar R.V., Jahoor F., Jones P.H., and Pownall H.J. Pathophysiology of dyslipidaemia and increased cardiovascular risk in HIV lipodystrophy: a model of "systemic steatosis". Curr Opin Lipidol 15 (2004) 59-67
49. Fauvel J., Bonnet E., Ruidavets J.B., et al. An interaction between apo C-III variants and protease inhibitors contributes to high triglyceride/low HDL levels in treated HIV patients. AIDS 15 (2001) 2397-2406
50. Brown T, Cole SR, Li X, et al. Prevalence and incidence of pre-diabetes and diabetes in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. Proceedings of the 11th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. San Francisco, USA, 2004.
51. Behrens G.M., Boerner A.R., Weber K., et al. Impaired glucose phosphorylation and transport in skeletal muscle cause insulin resistance in HIV-1-infected patients with lipodystrophy. J Clin Invest 110 (2002) 1319-1327
52. Van Der Valk M., Bisschop P.H., Romijn J.A., et al. Lipodystrophy in HIV-1-positive patients is associated with insulin resistance in multiple metabolic pathways. AIDS 15 (2001) 2093-2100
53. Haugaard S.B., Andersen O., Dela F., et al. Defective glucose and lipid metabolism in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients with lipodystrophy involve liver, muscle tissue and pancreatic beta-cells. Eur J Endocrinol 152 (2005) 103-112
54. Murata H., Hruz P.W., and Mueckler M. Indinavir inhibits the glucose transporter isoform Glut4 at physiologic concentrations. AIDS 16 (2002) 859-863
55. Murata H., Hruz P.W., and Mueckler M. The mechanism of insulin resistance caused by HIV protease inhibitor therapy. J Biol Chem 275 (2000) 20251-20254
56. Hadigan C. Insulin resistance among HIV-infected patients: unraveling the mechanism. Clin Infect Dis 41 (2005) 1341-1342
57. Meininger G., Hadigan C., Laposata M., et al. Elevated concentrations of free fatty acids are associated with increased insulin response to standard glucose challenge in human immunodeficiency virus-infected subjects with fat redistribution. Metabolism 51 (2002) 260-266
58. Ninomiya J.K., L'Italien G., Criqui M.H., Whyte J.L., Gamst A., and Chen R.S. Association of the metabolic syndrome with history of myocardial infarction and stroke in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Circulation 109 (2004) 42-46
59. Grundy S.M., Cleeman J.L., Daniels S.R., et al. Diagnosis and management of the metabolic syndrome: An American Heart Association/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute scientific statement. Curr Opin Cardiol 21 (2006) 1-6
60. Gazzaruso C., Sacchi P., Garzanti A., Fratino P., Bruno R., and Filice G. Prevalence of metabolic syndrome among HIV patients. Diabetes Care 25 (2002) 1253-1254
61. Jericò C., Knobel H., Montero M., et al. Metabolic syndrome among HIV-infected patients. Diabetes Care 28 (2005) 144-149
62. Wand H., Calmy A., Carey D.L., et al. Metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes mellitus after initiation of antiretroviral therapy in HIV infection. AIDS 21 (2007) 2445-2453
63. Mangili A., Jacobson D.L., Gerrior J., Polak J.F., Gorbach S.L., and Wanke C.A. Metabolic syndrome and subclinical atherosclerosis in patients infected with HIV. Clin Infect Dis 44 (2007) 1368-1374
64. De Gaetano Donati K., Rabagliati R., Iacoviello L., and Cauda R. HIV infection, HAART, and endothelial adhesion molecules: current perspectives. Lancet Infect Dis 4 (2004) 213-222
65. Thomas C.M., and Smart E.J. How HIV protease inhibitors promote atherosclerotic lesion formation. Curr Opin Lipidol 18 (2007) 561-565
66. Stefano G.B., Salzet M., and Bilfinger T.V. Long-term exposure of human blood vessels to HIV gp120, morphine, and anandamide increases endothelial adhesion of monocytes: uncoupling of nitric oxide release. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 31 (1998) 862-868
67. Ren Z., Yao Q., and Chen C. HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein 120 increases intercellular adhesion molecule-1 expression by human endothelial cells. Lab Invest 82 (2002) 245-255
68. Hwang S.J., Ballantyne C.M., Sharrett A.R., et al. Circulating adhesion molecules VCAM-1, ICAM-1, and E-selectin in carotid atherosclerosis and incident coronary heart disease cases: the Atherosclerosis Risk In Communities (ARIC) study. Circulation 96 (1997) 4219-4225
69. Jager A., Van Hinsbergh V.W., Kostense P.J., et al. Increased levels of soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule I are associated with risk of cardiovascular mortality in type 2 diabetes: the Hoorn study. Diabetes 49 (2000) 485-491
70. Galea P., Vermot-Desroches C., Le Contel C., Wijdenes J., and Chermann J.C. Circulating cell adhesion molecules in HIV-1-infected patients as indicator markers for AIDS progression. Res Immunol 148 (1999) 109-117
71. Wolf K., Tsakiris D.A., Weber R., Erb P., and Battegay M. Antiretroviral therapy reduces markers of endothelial and coagulation activation in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Infect Dis 185 (2002) 456-462
72. De Gaetano Donati K., Rabagliati R., Tumbarello M., et al. Increased soluble markers of endothelial dysfunction in HIV-positive patients under highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 17 (2003) 765-768
73. Zhong D.S., Lu X., Conklin B.S., et al. HIV protease inhibitor ritonavir induces cytotoxicity of human endothelial cells. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 22 (2002) 1560-1566
74. Dubé MP, Vanderluitgaren JM, Leffler CM, Baron AD, Steinberg HO. Effect of indinavir (IND) monotherapy on endothelial function in men without HIV infection. Proceedings of the 9th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, Seattle, USA, 2002.
75. Feldman J.G., Goldwasser P., Holman S., Dehovitz J., and Minkoff H. C-reactive protein is an independent predictor of mortality in women with HIV-1 infection. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 32 (2003) 210-214
76. Kumada M., Kihara S., Sumitsuiji S., et al. Association of hypoadiponectinemia with coronary artery disease in men. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 23 (2003) 85-89
77. Xu A., Yin S., Wong L., et al. Adiponectin ameliorates dyslipidaemia induced by the human immunodeficiency virus protease inhibitor ritonavir in mice. Endocrinology 145 (2004) 487-494
78. Maggi P., Lillo A., Perilli F., Maserati R., and Chirianni A. Colour-Doppler ultrasonography of carotid vessels in patients treated with antiretroviral therapy: a comparative study. AIDS 18 (2004) 1023-1028
79. Maggi P., Perilli F., Lillo A., et al. Rapid progression of carotid lesions in HAART-treated HIV-1 patients. Atherosclerosis 192 (2007) 407-412
80. Maggi P., Perilli F., Lillo A., et al. An ultrasound-based comparative study on carotid plaques in HIV-positive patients vs. atherosclerotic and arteritis patients: atherosclerotic of inflammatory lesions?. Coronary Artery Dis 18 (2007) 23-29
81. Coll B., Parra S., Alonso-Villaverde C., et al. The role of immunity and inflammation in the progression of atherosclerosis in patients with HIV infection. Stroke 38 (2007) 2477-2484
82. Jericò C., Knobel H., Calvo N., et al. Subclinical carotid atherosclerosis in HIV-infected patients: role of combination antiretroviral therapy. Stroke 37 (2006) 812-817
83. De Saint Martin L., Vandhuick O., Guillo P., et al. Premature atherosclerosis in HIV-positive patients and cumulated time of exposure to antiretroviral therapy (SHIVA study). Atherosclerosis (2005) Aug 29 [Epub ahead of print]
84. Stein J.H., Klein M.A., Bellehumeur J.L., et al. Use of human immunodeficiency virus-1 protease inhibitors is associated with atherogenic lipoprotein changes and endothelial dysfunction. Circulation 104 (2001) 257-262
85. Lorenz M.W., Stephan C., Harmjanz A., et al. Both long-term HIV infection and highly active antiretroviral therapy are independent risk factors for early carotid atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis (2007) Jan 31 [Epub ahead of print]
86. McComsey G.A., O'Riordan M., Hazen S.L., et al. Increased carotid intima-media thickness and cardiac biomarkers in HIV infected children. AIDS 21 (2007) 921-927
87. Depairon M., Chessex S., Sudre P., et al. Premature atherosclerosis in HIV-infected individuals-focus on protease inhibitor therapy. AIDS 15 (2001) 329-334
88. Hsue P.Y., Lo J.C., Franklin A., et al. Progression of atherosclerosis as assessed by carotid intima-media thickness in patients with HIV infection. Circulation 109 (2004) 1603-1608
89. Currier J.S., Kendall M.A., Zackin R., et al. Carotid artery intima-media thickness and HIV infection: traditional risk factors overshadow impact of protease inhibitor exposure. AIDS 19 (2005) 927-933
90. Mangili A., Gerrior J., Tang A.M., et al. Risk of cardiovascular disease in a cohort of HIV-infected adults: a study using carotid intima-media thickness and coronary artery calcium score. Clin Infect Dis 43 (2006) 1482-1489
91. Lebech A.M., Wiinberg N., Kristoffersen U.S., et al. Carotid intima-media thickness in HIV patients treated with antiretroviral therapy. Clin Physiol Funct Imaging 27 (2007) 173-179
92. Nolan D., Watts G.F., Herrmann S.E., French M.A., John M., and Mallal S. Endothelial function in HIV-infected patients receiving protease inhibitor therapy: does immune competence affect cardiovascular risk?. QJM 96 (2003) 825-832
93. Bonnet D., Aggoun Y., Szezepanski I., Bellal N., and Blanche S. Arterial stiffness and endothelial dysfunction in HIV-infected children. AIDS 18 (2004) 1037-1041
94. Aoun S., and Ramos E. Hypertension in the HIV-infected patient. Curr Hypertens Rep 2 (2000) 478-481
95. Henry K., Melroe H., Huebsch J., et al. Severe premature coronary artery disease with protease inhibitors. Lancet 351 (1998) 1328
96. Vittecoq D., Escaut L., and Monsuez J.J. Vascular complications associated with use of HIV protease inhibitors. Lancet 1998 (1959) 351
97. Friedl A.C., Attenhofer Jost C.H., Schalcher C., et al. Acceleration of confirmed coronary artery disease among HIV-infected patients on potent antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 14 (2000) 2790-2792
98. Stein J.H. Managing cardiovascular risk in patients with HIV infection. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 38 (2005) 115-123
99. Rickerts V., Brodt H., Staszewski S., and Stille W. Incidence of myocardial infarctions in HIV-infected patients between 1983 and 1998: the Frankfurt HIV-cohort study. Eur J Med Res 5 (2000) 329-333
100. Klein D., Hurley L.B., Quesenberry Jr. C.P., and Sidney S. Do protease inhibitors increase the risk for coronary heart disease in patients with HIV-1 infection?. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 30 (2002) 471-477
101. Currier J.S., Taylor A., Boyd F., et al. Coronary heart disease in HIV-infected individuals. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 33 (2003) 506-512
102. Mary-Krause M., Cotte L., Simon A., Partisani M., and Costagliola D. Increased risk of myocardial infarction with duration of protease inhibitor therapy in HIV-infected men. AIDS 17 (2003) 2479-2486
103. Vittecoq D., Escaut L., Chironi G., et al. Coronary heart disease in HIV-infected patients in the highly active antiretroviral treatment era. AIDS 17 Suppl. 1 (2003) S70-S76
104. DAD Study Group. Class of antiretroviral drugs and the risk of myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 356 (2007) 1723-1735
105. Obel N., Thomsen F., Kronborg G., et al. Ischemic heart disease in HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected individuals: a population-based cohort study. Clin Infect Dis 44 (2007) 1625-1631
106. Iloeje U.H., Yuan Y., L'Italien G., et al. Protease inhibitor exposure and increased risk of cardiovascular disease in HIV-infected patients. HIV Med 6 (2005) 37-44
107. Kaplan R.C., Kingsley L.A., Sharrett R., et al. Ten-year predicted coronary heart disease risk in HIV-infected men and women. Clin Infect Dis 45 (2007) 1074-1081
108. Bozzette S.A., Ake C.F., Tam H.K., Chang S.W., and Louis T.A. Cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events in patients treated for human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med 348 (2003) 702-710
109. Snider W.D., Simpson D.M., Nielsen S., Gold J.W., Metroka C.E., and Posner J.B. Neurological complications of acquired immune deficiency syndrome: analysis of 50 patients. Ann Neurol 14 (1983) 403-418
110. Levy R.M., and Bredesen D.E. Central nervous system dysfunction in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1 (1988) 41-64
111. Evers S., Nabavi D., Rahmann A., Heese C., Reichelt D., and Husstedt I.W. Ischaemic cerebrovascular events in HIV infection. A cohort study. Cerebrovasc Dis 15 (2003) 199-205
112. D'Arminio Monforte A., Sabin C.A., Phillips A.N., et al. Cardio- and cerebrovascular events in HIV-infected persons. AIDS 18 (2004) 1811-1817
113. Dubé M.P., Stein J.H., Aberg J.A., et al. Guidelines for the evaluation and management of dyslipidemia in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected adults receiving antiretroviral therapy: recommendations of the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Disease Society of America and the Adult AIDS Clinical Trials Group. Clin Infect Dis 37 (2003) 613-627
114. Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults. Executive summary of the third report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). JAMA 285 (2001) 2486-2497
115. Stone N.J., Bilek S., and Rosenbaum S. Recent National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III update: adjustments and options. Am J Cardiol 96 4A (2005) 53E-59E
116. Jones S.P., Doran D.A., Leatt P.B., Maher B., and Pirmohamed M. Short-term exercise training improves body composition and hyperlipidaemia in HIV-positive individuals with lipodystrophy. AIDS 15 (2001) 2049-2051
117. Yarasheski K.E., Tebas P., Stanerson B., et al. Resistance exercise training reduces hypertriglyceridemia in HIV-infected men treated with antiviral therapy. J Appl Physiol 90 (2001) 133-138
118. Acevedo M., Sprecher D.L., Calabrese L., et al. Pilot study of coronary atherosclerotic risk and plaque burden in HIV patients: "a call for cardiovascular prevention". Atherosclerosis 163 (2002) 349-354
119. Martinez E., Arnaiz J.A., Podzamczer D., et al. Substitution of nevirapine, efavirenz, or abacavir for protease inhibitors in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med 349 (2003) 1036-1046
120. Bucher H.C., Kofler A., Nuesch R., Young J., Battegay M., and Opravil M. Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials of simplified versus continued protease inhibitor-based antiretroviral therapy in HIV-1-infected patients. AIDS 17 (2003) 2451-2459
121. Keiser P.H., Sension M.G., Dejesus E., et al. Substituting abacavir for hyperlipidaemia-associated protease inhibitors in HAART regimens improves fasting lipid profiles, maintains virologic suppression, and simplifies treatment. BMC Infect Dis 5 (2005) 2
122. Moyle G.J., Sabin C.A., Cartledge J., et al. A randomized comparative trial of tenofovir DF or abacavir as replacement for a thymidine analogue in persons with lipoatrophy. AIDS 20 (2006) 2043-2050
123. Milinkovic A., Martinez E., Lopez S., et al. The impact of reducing stavudine dose versus switching to tenofovir on plasma lipids, body composition and mitochondrial function in HIV-infected patients. Antivir Ther 12 (2007) 407-415
124. Gatell J., Salmon-Ceron D., Lazzarin A., et al. Efficacy and safety of atazanavir-based highly active antiretroviral therapy in patients with virologic suppression switched from a stable, boosted or unboosted protease inhibitor treatment regimen: the SWAN study (AI424-097) 48-week results. Clin Infect Dis 44 (2007) 1484-1492
125. Calza L., Manfredi R., and Chiodo F. Statins and fibrates for the treatment of hyperlipidaemia in HIV-infected patients receiving HAART. AIDS 17 (2003) 851-859
126. Bonnet F., Balestre F., Thiebaut R., et al. Fibrates or statins and lipid plasma levels in 245 patients treated with highly active antiretroviral therapy. Aquitaine Cohort, France, 1999-2001. HIV Med 5 (2004) 133-139
127. Calza L., Manfredi R., Colangeli V., et al. Substitution of nevirapine or efavirenz for protease inhibitor versus lipid-lowering therapy for the management of dyslipidaemia. AIDS 19 (2005) 1051-1058
128. McGoldrick C., and Leen C.L. The management of dyslipidaemias in antiretroviral-treated HIV infection: a systematic review. HIV Med 8 (2007) 325-334
129. Cheng J.W. Rosuvastatin in the management of hyperlipidemia. Clin Ther 26 (2004) 1368-1387
130. Calza L., Colangeli V., Manfredi R., et al. Rosuvastatin for the treatment of hyperlipidaemia in HIV-infected patients receiving protease inhibitors: a pilot study. AIDS 19 (2005) 1103-1105
131. van der Lee M., Sankatsing R., Schippers E., et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of combined use of lopinavir-ritonavir and rosuvastatin in HIV-infected patients. Antivir Ther 12 (2007) 1127-1132
132. Calza L., Manfredi R., and Chiodo F. Use of fibrates in the management of hyperlipidaemia in HIV-infected patients receiving HAART. Infection 30 (2002) 26-31
133. Manfredi R., Calza L., and Chiodo F. Polyunsaturated ethyl esters of n-3 fatty acids in HIV-infected patients with moderate hypertriglyceridemia: comparison with dietary and lifestyle changes, and fibrate therapy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 36 (2004) 878-880
134. Hadigan C., Corcoran C., Basgoz N., Davis B., Sax P., and Grinspoon S. Metformin in the treatment of HIV lipodystrophy syndrome: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 284 (2000) 472-477
135. Hadigan C., Rabe J., and Grinspoon S. Sustained benefits of metformin therapy on markers of cardiovascular risk in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients with fat redistribution and insulin resistance. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87 (2002) 4611-4615
136. Van Vijk J.P., De Koning E.J., Cabezas M.C., et al. Comparison of rosiglitazone and metformin for treating HIV lipodystrophy. Ann Intern Med 143 (2005) 337-346
137. Sutinen J., Hakkinen K., and Westerbacka J. Rosiglitazone in the treatment of HAART-associated lipodystrophy- a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study. Antivir Ther 8 (2003) 199-207
138. Carr A., Workman C., Carey D., et al. No effect of rosiglitazone for treatment of HIV-1 lipoatrophy: randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 363 (2004) 429-438
139. Oette M., Kurowski M., Feldt T., et al. Impact of rosiglitazone treatment on the bioavailability of antiretroviral compounds in HIV-positive patients. J Antimicrob Chemother 56 (2005) 416-419
140. Pittas A.G., and Greenberg A.S. Thiazolidinediones in the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Expert Opin Pharmacother 3 (2002) 529-540