Viral infections associated with haemophagocytic syndrome

Reviews in Medical Virology

Volumn 20, Issue 2, 2010, Pages 93-105

  Maakaroun, Nadine Rouphael ^a   Moanna, Abeer ^a   Jacob, Jesse T ^a   Albrecht, Helmut ^b  

^a EMORY UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH CAROLINA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; ANTIVIRUS AGENT; CYTOKINE; IMMUNOMODULATING AGENT; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE AGENT;

AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE; BLOOD CLOTTING DISORDER; BONE MARROW TRANSPLANTATION; CELL ACTIVATION; CELL PROLIFERATION; CYTOKINE RELEASE; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; EPSTEIN BARR VIRUS; FEVER; GENETIC DISORDER; HEMOPHAGOCYTIC LYMPHOHISTIOCYTOSIS; HEMOPHAGOCYTIC SYNDROME; HEPATOMEGALY; HERPES VIRUS; HUMAN; LIVER DYSFUNCTION; LYMPHADENOPATHY; MACROPHAGE ACTIVATION SYNDROME; MACULOPAPULAR RASH; MALIGNANT NEOPLASTIC DISEASE; MULTIPLE ORGAN FAILURE; NATURAL KILLER CELL; NEUROLOGIC DISEASE; PANCYTOPENIA; RARE DISEASE; REVIEW; SPLENOMEGALY; T LYMPHOCYTE; VIRUS INFECTION;

ANTIVIRAL AGENTS; BONE MARROW TRANSPLANTATION; HUMANS; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE AGENTS; LYMPHOHISTIOCYTOSIS, HEMOPHAGOCYTIC; VIRUS DISEASES;

EID: 77649155207     PISSN: 10529276     EISSN: 10991654     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/rmv.638     Document Type: Review

References (143)

1. Rouphael NG, Talati NJ, Vaughan C, Cunningham K, Moreira R, Gould C. Infections associated with haemophagocytic syndrome. Lancet Infect Dis 2007; 7: 814-822.
2. Scott R, Robb-Smith A. Histiocytic medullary reticulosis. Lancet 1939; 2: 194-198.
3. Risdall RJ, McKenna RW, Nesbit ME, et al. Virus-associated hemophagocytic syndrome: a benign histiocytic proliferation distinct from malignant histiocytosis. Cancer 1979; 44: 993-1002.
4. Ishii E, Ohga S, Imashuku S, et al. Nationwide survey of hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis in Japan. Int J Hematol 2007; 86: 58-65.
5. Allen M, De Fusco C, Legrand F, et al. Familial hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis: how late can the onset be? Haematologica 2001; 86: 499-503.
6. Henter JI, Ehrnst A, Andersson J, Elinder G. Familial hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis and viral infections. Acta Paediatr 1993; 82: 369-372.
7. Verbsky JW, Grossman WJ. Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis: diagnosis, pathophysiology, treatment, and future perspectives. Ann Med 2006; 38: 20-31.
8. Farquhar J, Claireaux A. Familial haemophagocytic reticulosis. Arch Dis Child 1952; 27: 519-525.
9. Henter JI, Elinder G, Soder O, Ost A. Incidence in Sweden and clinical features of familial hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Acta Paediatr Scand 1991; 80: 428-435.
10. Ishii E, Ohga S, Tanimura M, et al. Clinical and epidemiologic studies of familial hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis in Japan. Japan LCH Study Group. Med Pediatr Oncol 1998; 30: 276-283.
11. Dhote R, Simon J, Papo T, et al. Reactive hemophagocytic syndrome in adult systemic disease: report of twenty-six cases and literature review. Arthritis Rheum 2003; 49: 633-639.
12. Janka G, Imashuku S, ElinderG, SchneiderM,Henter JI. Infection- and malignancy-associated hemophagocytic syndromes. Secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 1998; 12: 435-444.
13. Fisman DN. Hemophagocytic syndromes and infection. Emerg Infect Dis 2000; 6: 601-608.
14. de Saint Basile G, Fischer A. Defective cytotoxic granule-mediated cell death pathway impairs T lymphocyte homeostasis. Curr Opin Rheumatol 2003; 15: 436-445.
15. Stepp SE, Dufourcq-Lagelouse R, Le Deist F, et al. Perforin gene defects in familial hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Science 1999; 286: 1957-1959.
16. Fadeel B, Orrenius S, Henter JI. Familial hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis: too little cell death can seriously damage your health. Leuk Lymphoma 2001; 42: 13-20.
17. Ohga S, Matsuzaki A, Nishizaki M, et al. Inflammatory cytokines in virus-associated hemophagocytic syndrome. Interferon-gamma as a sensitive indicator of disease activity. Am J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 1993; 15: 291-298.
18. Osugi Y, Hara J, Tagawa S, et al. Cytokine production regulating Th1 and Th2 cytokines in hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Blood 1997; 89: 4100-4103.
19. Imashuku S, Hibi S, Fujiwara F, Todo S. Hyperinterleukin (IL)-6-naemia in haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Br J Haematol 1996; 93: 803-807.
20. Takada H, Ohga S, Mizuno Y, Nomura A, Hara T. Increased IL-16 levels in hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 2004; 26: 567-573.
21. Takada H, Nomura A, Ohga S, Hara T. Interleukin-18 in hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Leuk Lymphoma 2001; 42: 21-28.
22. Tang Y, Xu X, Song H, et al. Early diagnostic and prognostic significance of a specific Th1/Th2 cytokine pattern in children with haemophagocytic syndrome. Br J Haematol 2008; 143: 84-91.
23. Komp DM, Buckley PJ, McNamara J, van Hoff J. Soluble interleukin-2 receptor in hemophagocytic histiocytoses: searching for markers of disease activity. Pediatr Hematol Oncol 1989; 6: 253-264.
24. Imashuku S, Hibi S, Sako M, et al. Soluble interleukin-2 receptor: a useful prognostic factor for patients with hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Blood 1995; 86: 4706-4707.
25. Chang YH, Lee DS, Jo HS, et al. Tumor necrosis factor alpha promoter polymorphism associated with increased susceptibility to secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis in the Korean population. Cytokine 2006; 36: 45-50.
26. Kereveur A, McIlroy D, Samri A, Oksenhendler E, Clauvel JP, Autran B. Up-regulation of adhesion and MHC molecules on splenic monocyte/macrophages in adult haemophagocytic syndrome. Br J Haematol 1999; 104: 871-877.
27. Emminger W, Zlabinger GJ, Fritsch G, Urbanek R. CD14(dim)/CD16(bright) monocytes in hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Eur J Immunol 2001; 31: 1716-1719.
28. de Saint Basile G, Fischer A. The role of cytotoxicity in lymphocyte homeostasis. Curr Opin Immunol 2001; 13: 549-554.
29. Henter JI, Elinder G, Ost A. Diagnostic guidelines for hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. The FHL Study Group of the Histiocyte Society. Semin Oncol 1991; 18: 29-33.
30. Tokuyasu K, Hara Y, Matsumoto Y, et al. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy with mid-ventricular obstruction and splenic infarction associated with paroxysmal atrial fibrillation: a case report. J Cardiol 1999; 34: 273-277.
31. de Kerguenec C, Hillaire S, Molinie V, et al. Hepatic manifestations of hemophagocytic syndrome: a study of 30 cases. Am J Gastroenterol 2001; 96: 852-857.
32. Okamoto M, Yamaguchi H, Isobe Y, et al. Analysis of triglyceride value in the diagnosis and treatment response of secondary hemophagocytic syndrome. Intern Med 2009; 48: 775-781.
33. Koduri PR, Carandang G, DeMarais P, Patel AR. Hyperferritinemia in reactive hemophagocytic syndrome report of four adult cases. Am J Hematol 1995; 49: 247-249.
34. Allen CE, Yu X, Kozinetz CA, McClain KL. Highly elevated ferritin levels and the diagnosis of hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2008; 50: 1227-1235.
35. Henter JI, Arico M, Egeler RM, et al. HLH-94: a treatment protocol for hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. HLH study Group of the Histiocyte Society. Med Pediatr Oncol 1997; 28: 342-347.
36. Henter JI, Samuelsson-Horne A, Arico M, et al. Treatment of hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis with HLH-94 immunochemotherapy and bone marrow transplantation. Blood 2002; 100: 2367-2373.
37. Imashuku S, Hibi S, Ohara T, et al. Effective control of Epstein-Barr virus-related hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis with immunochemotherapy. Histiocyte Society. Blood 1999; 93: 1869-1874.
38. Imashuku S, Kuriyama K, Teramura T, et al. Requirement for etoposide in the treatment of Epstein-Barr virus-associated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. J Clin Oncol 2001; 19: 2665-2673.
39. Imashuku S, Kuriyama K, Sakai R, et al. Treatment of Epstein-Barr virus-associated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (EBV-HLH) in young adults: a report from the HLH study center. Med Pediatr Oncol 2003; 41: 103-109.
40. Oyama Y, Amano T, Hirakawa S, Hironaka K, Suzuki S, Ota Z. Haemophagocytic syndrome treated with cyclosporin A: a T cell disorder? Br J Haematol 1989; 73: 276-278.
41. Nagasawa M, Okawa H, Yata J. Deleterious effects of high dose gamma-globulin therapy on patients with hemophagocytic syndrome. Int J Hematol 1994; 60: 91-93.
42. Wang S, Degar BA, Zieske A, Shafi NQ, Rose MG. Hemophagocytosis exacerbated by G-CSF/GM-CSF treatment in a patient with myelodysplasia. Am J Hematol 2004; 77: 391-316.
43. Janka GE. Familial hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Eur J Pediatr 1983; 140: 221-230.
44. Horne A, Janka G, Maarten Egeler R, et al. Haematopoietic stem cell transplantation in haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Br J Haematol 2005; 129: 622-630.
45. Arico M, Janka G, Fischer A, et al. Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Report of 122 children from the International Registry. FHL Study Group of the Histiocyte Society. Leukemia 1996; 10: 197-203.
46. Chen CJ, Huang YC, Jaing TH, et al. Hemophagocytic syndrome: a review of 18 pediatric cases. J Microbiol Immunol Infect 2004; 37: 157-163.
47. Imashuku S. Clinical features and treatment strategies of Epstein-Barr virus-associated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2002; 44: 259-272.
48. Tabata YS, Teramura T, Kuriyama K, et al. Molecular analysis of latent membrane protein 1 in patients with Epstein-Barr virus-associated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis in Japan. Leuk Lymphoma 2000; 38: 373-380.
49. Elazary AS, Wolf DG, Amir G, et al. Severe Epstein-Barr virus-associated hemophagocytic syndrome in six adult patients. J Clin Virol 2007; 40: 156-159.
50. Sonke GS, Ludwig I, van Oosten H, et al. Poor outcomes of chronic active Epstein-Barr virus infection and hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis in non-Japanese adult patients. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 47: 105-108.
51. Beutel K, Gross-Wieltsch U, Wiesel T, Stadt UZ, Janka G, Wagner HJ. Infection of T lymphocytes in Epstein-Barr virus-associated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis in children of non-Asian origin. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2009; 53: 184-190.
52. Christensson B, Braconier JH, Winqvist I, Relander T, Dictor M. Fulminant course of infectious mononucleosis with virus-associated hemophagocytic syndrome. Scand J Infect Dis 1987; 19: 373-379.
53. Kasahara Y, Yachie A. Cell type specific infection of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) in EBV-associated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis and chronic active EBV infection. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2002; 44: 283-94.
54. Ohshima K, Suzumiya J, Sugihara M, Nagafuchi S, Ohga S, Kikuchi M. Clinicopathological study of severe chronic active Epstein-Barr virus infection that developed in association with lymphoproliferative disorder and/or hemophagocytic syndrome. Pathol Int 1998; 48: 934-943.
55. Lindemann TL, Greene JS. Persistent cervical lymphadenopathy in an adolescent with Epstein-Barr induced hemophagocytic syndrome: manifestations of a rare but often fatal disease. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2005; 69: 1011-1014.
56. Akashi K, Mizuno S. Epstein-Barr virus-infected natural killer cell leukemia. Leuk Lymphoma 2000; 40: 57-66.
57. Su IJ, Wang CH, Cheng AL, Chen RL. Hemophagocytic syndrome in Epstein-Barr virus-associated Tlymphoproliferative disorders: disease spectrum, pathogenesis, and management. Leuk Lymphoma 1995; 19: 401-406.
58. Wada T, Kurokawa T, Toma T, et al. Immunophenotypic analysis of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-infected CD8(+) T cells in a patient with EBVassociated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Eur J Haematol 2007; 79: 72-75.
59. Chuang HC, Lay JD, Hsieh WC, et al. Epstein-Barr virus LMP1 inhibits the expression of SAP gene and upregulates Th1 cytokines in the pathogenesis of hemophagocytic syndrome. Blood 2005; 106: 3090-3096.
60. Imashuku S, Hibi S, Tabata Y, et al. Biomarker and morphological characteristics of Epstein-Barr virus-related hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Med Pediatr Oncol 1998; 31: 131-137.
61. Morra M, Howie D, Grande MS, et al. X-linked lymphoproliferative disease: a progressive immunode-ficiency. Annu Rev Immunol 2001; 19: 657-682.
62. Kimura H, Ito Y, Suzuki R, Nishiyama Y. Measuring Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) load: the significance and application for each EBV-associated disease. Rev Med Virol 2008; 18: 305-319.
63. Kimura H, Nishikawa K, Hoshino Y, Sofue A, Nishiyama Y, Morishima T. Monitoring of cell-free viral DNA in primary Epstein-Barr virus infection. Med Microbiol Immunol (Berl) 2000; 188: 197-202.
64. Kimura H, Hoshino Y, Hara S, et al. Viral load in Epstein-Barr virus-associated hemophagocytic syndrome. Microbiol Immunol 2002; 46: 579-582.
65. Teramura T, Tabata Y, Yagi T, Morimoto A, Hibi S, Imashuku S. Quantitative analysis of cell-free Epstein-Barr virus genome copy number in patients with EBV-associated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Leuk Lymphoma 2002; 43: 173-179.
66. Bakhshi S, Pautu JL. EBV associated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis with spontaneous regression. Indian Pediatr 2005; 42: 1253-1255.
67. Imashuku S, Tabata Y, Teramura T, Hibi S. Treatment strategies for Epstein-Barr virus-associated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (EBV-HLH). Leuk Lymphoma 2000; 39: 37-49.
68. Kaito K, Otsubo H, Takei Y, Usui N, Kobayashi M. Immunosuppressive therapy with antithymocyte globulin and cyclosporine for prolonged marrow failure after hemophagocytic syndrome. Ann Hematol 2003; 82: 699-701.
69. Imashuku S, Obayashi M, Hosoi G, et al. Splenectomy in haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis: report of histopathological changes with CD19+ B-cell depletion and therapeutic results. Br J Haematol 2000; 108: 505-510.
70. Matsumoto Y, Naniwa D, Banno S, Sugiura Y. The efficacy of therapeutic plasmapheresis for the treatment of fatal hemophagocytic syndrome: two case reports. Ther Apher 1998; 2: 300-304.
71. Connolly AA, Rowe-Jones J, Leighton SE, Ball SE, Davies EG,Moore-GillonV. Pseudomonal supraglottitis occurring in a patient with profound neutropenia secondary to virus-associated haemophagocytic syndrome. J Laryngol Otol 1992; 106: 739-740.
72. Balamuth NJ, Nichols KE, Paessler M, Teachey DT. Use of rituximab in conjunction with immunosuppressive chemotherapy as a novel therapy for Epstein Barr virus-associated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 2007; 29: 569-573.
73. Kaza U, Knight AK, Jeroudi M, Bocchini JA, Jr., Anga A, Bahna SL. A boy with fever, lymphadenopathy, hepatosplenomegaly, and lymphocytosis. Allergy Asthma Proc 2008; 29: 216-20.
74. Imashuku S, Hibi S, Todo S, et al. Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for patients with hemophagocytic syndrome (HPS) in Japan. Bone Marrow Transplant 1999; 23: 569-572.
75. Imashuku S, Teramura T, Tauchi H, et al. Longitudinal follow-up of patients with Epstein-Barr virusassociated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Haematologica 2004; 89: 183-188.
76. Danish EH, Dahms BB, Kumar ML. Cytomegalovirus-associated hemophagocytic syndrome. Pediatrics 1985; 75: 280-283.
77. Oloomi Z, Moayeri H. Cytomegalovirus infectionassociated hemophagocytic syndrome. Arch Iran Med 2006; 9: 284-287.
78. Maruyama K, Koizumi T, Hirato J. Cytomegalovirus infections associated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis in a premature infant. Pediatr Int 2006; 48: 648-650.
79. Kohara MM, Blum RN. Cytomegalovirus ileitis and hemophagocytic syndrome associated with use of anti-tumor necrosis factor-alpha antibody. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 42: 733-734.
80. Koketsu S, Watanabe T, Hori N, Umetani N, Takazawa Y, Nagawa H. Hemophagocytic syndrome caused by fulminant ulcerative colitis and cytomegalovirus infection: report of a case. Dis Colon Rectum 2004; 47: 1250-1253; discussion 3-5.
81. Amenomori M, Migita K, Miyashita T, et al. Cytomegalovirus- associated hemophagocytic syndrome in a patient with adult onset Still's disease. Clin Exp Rheumatol 2005; 23: 100-102.
82. Sakamoto O, Ando M, Yoshimatsu S, Kohrogi H, Suga M, Ando M. Systemic lupus erythematosus complicated by cytomegalovirus-induced hemophagocytic syndrome and colitis. Intern Med 2002; 41: 151-155.
83. Devecioglu O, Anak S, Atay D, et al. Pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia complicated by secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2009; 53: 491-492.
84. Sato M, Matsushima T, Takada S, et al. Fulminant, CMV-associated, haemophagocytic syndrome following unrelated bone marrow transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant 1998; 22: 1219-1222.
85. Hardikar W, Pang K, Al-Hebbi H, Curtis N, Couper R. Successful treatment of cytomegalovirus-associated haemophagocytic syndrome following paediatric orthotopic liver transplantation. J Paediatr Child Health 2006; 42: 389-391.
86. Abdelkefi A, Ben Jamil W, Torjman L, et al. Hemophagocytic syndrome after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: a prospective observational study. Int J Hematol 2009; 89: 368-373.
87. Imashuku S, Ueda I, Teramura T, et al. Occurrence of haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis at less than 1 year of age: analysis of 96 patients. Eur J Pediatr 2005; 164: 315-319.
88. Uneda S, Murata S, Sonoki T, Matsuoka H, Nakakuma H. Successful treatment with liposomal doxorubicin for widespread Kaposi's sarcoma and human herpesvirus-8 related severe hemophagocytic syndrome in a patient with acquired immunode-ficiency syndrome. Int J Hematol 2009; 89: 195-200.
89. Stebbing J, Ngan S, Ibrahim H, et al. The successful treatment of haemophagocytic syndrome in patients with human immunodeficiency virus-associated multi-centric Castleman's disease. Clin Exp Immunol 2008; 154: 399-405.
90. Pastore RD, Chadburn A, Kripas C, Schattner EJ. Novel association of haemophagocytic syndrome with Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirusrelated primary effusion lymphoma. Br J Haematol 2000; 111: 1112-1115.
91. Fardet L, Blum L, Kerob D, et al. Human herpesvirus 8-associated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis in human immunodeficiency virusinfected patients. Clin Infect Dis 2003; 37: 285-291.
92. Bossini N, Sandrini S, Setti G, et al. Successful treatment with liposomal doxorubicin and foscarnet in a patient with widespread Kaposi's sarcoma and human herpes virus 8-related, serious hemophagocytic syndrome, after renal transplantation. G Ital Nefrol 2005; 22: 281-286.
93. Re A, Facchetti F, Borlenghi E, et al. Fatal hemophagocytic syndrome related to active human herpesvirus-8/Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus infection in human immunodeficiency virusnegative, non-transplant patients without related malignancies. Eur J Haematol 2007; 78: 361-364.
94. Grossman WJ, Radhi M, Schauer D, Gerday E, Grose C, Goldman FD. Development of hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis in triplets infected with HHV-8. Blood 2005; 106: 1203-1206.
95. Corbellino M, Bestetti G, Scalamogna C, et al. Longterm remission of Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus-related multicentric Castleman disease with anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody therapy. Blood 2001; 98: 3473-3475.
96. Yamada K, Yamamoto Y, Uchiyama A, et al. Successful treatment of neonatal herpes simplextype 1 infection complicated by hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis and acute liver failure. Tohoku J Exp Med 2008; 214: 1-5.
97. Ramasamy K, Lim ZY, Savvas M, et al. Disseminated herpes virus (HSV-2) infection with rhabdomyolysis and hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis in a patient with bone marrow failure syndrome. Ann Hematol 2006; 85: 629-630.
98. van der Werff Ten Bosch JE, Kollen WJ, Ball LM, et al. Atypical varicella zoster infection associated with hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2009; 53: 226-228.
99. Tanaka H, Nishimura T, Hakui M, Sugimoto H, Tanaka-Taya K, Yamanishi K. Human herpesvirus 6-associated hemophagocytic syndrome in a healthy adult. Emerg Infect Dis 2002; 8: 87-88.
100. Doyle T, Bhagani S, Cwynarski K. Haemophagocytic syndrome and HIV. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2009; 22: 1-6.
101. Albrecht H, Schafer H, Stellbrink HJ, Greten H. Epstein-Barr virus-Associated hemophagocytic syndrome. A cause of fever of unknown origin in human immunodeficiency virus infection. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1997; 121: 853-858.
102. Niedt GW, Schinella RA. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Clinicopathologic study of 56 autopsies. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1985; 109: 727-734.
103. Sun HY, Chen MY, Fang CT, Hsieh SM, Hung CC, Chang SC. Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis: an unusual initial presentation of acute HIV infection. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2004; 37: 1539-1540.
104. Castilletti C, Preziosi R, Bernardini G, et al. Hemophagocytic syndrome in a patient with acute human immunodeficiency virus infection. Clin Infect Dis 2004; 38: 1792-1793.
105. Park KH, Yu HS, Jung SI, Shin DH, Shin JH. Acute human immunodeficiency virus syndrome presenting with hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Yonsei Med J 2008; 49: 325-328.
106. Bhatia S, Bauer F, Bilgrami SA. Candidiasisassociated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis in a patient infected with human immunodefi-ciency virus. Clin Infect Dis 2003; 37: e161-e166.
107. Gotoh M, Matsuda J, Gohchi K, Sanaka T, Kawasugi K. Successful recovery from human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-associated haemophagocytic syndrome treated with highly active anti-retroviral therapy in a patient with HIV infection. Br J Haematol 2001; 112: 1090.
108. Huang DB, Wu JJ, Hamill RJ. Reactive hemophagocytosis associated with the initiation of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in a patient with AIDS. Scand J Infect Dis 2004; 36: 516-519.
109. Cuttelod M, Pascual A, Baur Chaubert AS, et al. Hemophagocytic syndrome after highly active antiretroviral therapy initiation: a life-threatening event related to immune restoration inflammatory syndrome? AIDS 2008; 22: 549-551.
110. De Lavaissiere M, Manceron V, Bouree P, et al. Reconstitution inflammatory syndrome related to histoplasmosis, with a hemophagocytic syndrome in HIV infection. J Infect 2009; 58: 245-247.
111. Potter MN, Foot AB, Oakhill A. Influenza A and the virus associated haemophagocytic syndrome: cluster of three cases in children with acute leukaemia. J Clin Pathol 1991; 44: 297-299.
112. Imashuku S. Differential diagnosis of hemophagocytic syndrome: underlying disorders and selection of the most effective treatment. Int J Hematol 1997; 66: 135-151.
113. Cunney RJ, Bialachowski A, Thornley D, Smaill FM, Pennie RA. An outbreak of influenza A in a neonatal intensive care unit. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2000; 21: 449-454.
114. Ando M, Miyazaki E, Hiroshige S, et al. Virus associated hemophagocytic syndrome accompanied by acute respiratory failure caused by influenza A (H3N2). Intern Med 2006; 45: 1183-1186.
115. Watanabe T, Okazaki E, Shibuya H. Influenza A virus-associated encephalopathy with haemophagocytic syndrome. Eur J Pediatr 2003; 162: 799-800.
116. Mou SS, Nakagawa TA, Riemer EC, McLean TW, Hines MH, Shetty AK. Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis complicating influenza a infection. Pediatrics 2006; 118: e216-e219.
117. Samransamruajkit R, Hiranrat T, Chieochansin T, et al. Prevalence, clinical presentations and complications among hospitalized children with influenza pneumonia. Jpn J Infect Dis 2008; 61: 446-449.
118. To KF, Chan PK, Chan KF, et al. Pathology of fatal human infection associated with avian influenza A H5N1 virus. J Med Virol 2001; 63: 242-246.
119. Zhang Z, Zhang J, Huang K, et al. Systemic infection of avian influenza A virus H5N1 subtype in humans. Hum Pathol 2009; 40: 735-739.
120. Kimura K, Adlakha A, Simon PM. Fatal case of swine influenza virus in an immunocompetent host. Mayo Clin Proc 1998; 73: 243-245.
121. de Jong MD, Bach VC, Phan TQ, et al. Fatal avian influenza A (H5N1) in a child presenting with diarrhea followed by coma. N Engl J Med 2005; 352: 686-691.
122. Chokephaibulkit K, Uiprasertkul M, Puthavathana P, et al. A child with avian influenza A (H5N1) infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2005; 24: 162-166.
123. Peiris JS, Yu WC, Leung CW, et al. Re-emergence of fatal human influenza A subtype H5N1 disease. Lancet 2004; 363: 617-619.
124. Cheung CY, Poon LL, Lau AS, et al. Induction of proinflammatory cytokines in human macrophages by influenza A (H5N1) viruses: a mechanism for the unusual severity of human disease? Lancet 2002; 360: 1831-1817.
125. Chan PK. Outbreak of avian influenza A(H5N1) virus infection in Hong Kong in 1997. Clin Infect Dis 2002; 34(Suppl. 2): S58-S64.
126. Ng WF, To KF, Lam WW, Ng TK, Lee KC. The comparative pathology of severe acute respiratory syndrome and avian influenza A subtype H5N1-a review. Hum Pathol 2006; 37: 381-390.
127. Hsieh SM, Chang SC. Insufficient perforin expression in CD8+ T cells in response to hemagglutinin from avian influenza (H5N1) virus. J Immunol 2006; 176: 4530-4533.
128. Cheung CL, Rayner JM, Smith GJ, et al. Distribution of amantadine-resistant H5N1 avian influenza variants in Asia. J Infect Dis 2006; 193: 1626-1629.
129. Ilyushina NA, Govorkova EA, Webster RG. Detection of amantadine-resistant variants among avian influenza viruses isolated in North America and Asia. Virology 2005; 341: 102-106.
130. Le QM, Kiso M, Someya K, et al. Avian flu: isolation of drug-resistant H5N1 virus. Nature 2005; 437: 1108.
131. de Jong MD, Tran TT, Truong HK, et al. Oseltamivir resistance during treatment of influenza A (H5N1) infection. N Engl J Med 2005; 353: 2667-2672.
132. Henter JI, Chow CB, Leung CW, Lau YL. Cytotoxic therapy for severe avian influenza A (H5N1) infection. Lancet 2006; 367: 870-873.
133. Hermann J, Steinbach D, Lengemann J, Zintl F. Parvovirus B 19 associated hemophagocytic syndrome in a patient with hereditary sperocytosis. Klin Padiatr 2003; 215: 270-274.
134. Kaya Z, Ozturk G, Gursel T, Bozdayi G. Spontaneous resolution of hemophagocytic syndrome and disseminated intravascular coagulation associated with parvovirus b19 infection in a previously healthy child. Jpn J Infect Dis 2005; 58: 149-151.
135. Yilmaz S, Oren H, Demircioglu F, Firinci F, Korkmaz A, Irken G. Parvovirus B19: A cause for aplastic crisis and hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2006; 47: 8610.
136. Larroche C, Scieux C, Honderlick P, Piette AM, Morinet F, Bletry O. Spontaneous resolution of hemophagocytic syndrome associated with acute parvovirus B19 infection and concomitant Epstein-Barr virus reactivation in an otherwise healthy adult. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2002; 21: 739-742.
137. Dutta U,Mittal S, Ratho RK, Das A. Acute liver failure and severe hemophagocytosis secondary to parvovirus B19 infection. Indian J Gastroenterol 2005; 24: 118-119.
138. Ardalan MR, Shoja MM, Tubbs RS, Esmaili H, Keyvani H. Postrenal transplant hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis and thrombotic microangiopathy associated with parvovirus b19 infection. Am J Transplant 2008; 8: 1340-1344.
139. Miyakawa K, Ohsugi K, Sugahara S, Kuriyama C, Kikuchi A, Ohta M. Tsutsugamushi disease with hemophagocytosis complicated by Parvovirus B19 infection. Nippon Naika Gakkai Zasshi 2006; 95: 2544-2546.
140. Watanabe M, Shibuya A, Okuno J, Maeda T, Tamama S, Saigenji K. Hepatitis A virus infection associated with hemophagocytic syndrome: report of two cases. Intern Med 2002; 41: 1188-1192.
141. Tuon FF, Gomes VS, Amato VS, et al. Hemophagocytic syndrome associated with hepatitis A: case report and literature review. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 2008; 50: 123-127.
142. Russo RA, Rosenzweig SD, Katsicas MM. Hepatitis A-associated macrophage activation syndrome in children with systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis: report of 2 cases. J Rheumatol 2008; 35: 166-168.
143. Katsibardi K, Moschovi MA, Theodoridou M, et al. Enterovirus-associated hemophagocytic syndrome in children with malignancy: report of three cases and review of the literature. Eur J Pediatr 2008; 167: 97-102.