Cocaine-related sudden death: A prospective investigation in south-west Spain

European Heart Journal

Volumn 31, Issue 3, 2010, Pages 318-329

  Lucena, Joaquin ^a   Blanco, Mario ^a   Jurado, Carmen ^b   Rico, Antonio ^a   Salguero, Manuel ^b   Vazquez, Rafael ^c   Thiene, Gaetano ^d   Basso, Cristina ^d  

^a Institute of Legal Medicine   (Spain)

^b Biology Section Apdo 863 E 41080   (Spain)

^c HOSPITAL UNIVERSITARIO PUERTA DEL MAR   (Spain)

^d UNIVERSITY OF PADUA MEDICAL SCHOOL   (Italy)

Author keywords

Cocaine; Death sudden; Epidemiology; Pathology; Toxicology

Indexed keywords

ALCOHOL; COCAINE;

ADULT; ARTICLE; AUTOPSY; BLOOD ANALYSIS; BLOOD SAMPLING; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CASE CONTROL STUDY; CAUSE OF DEATH; CEREBROVASCULAR DISEASE; CIGARETTE SMOKING; CLINICAL ARTICLE; CLINICAL PROTOCOL; CLINICAL TRIAL; COCAINE DEPENDENCE; CONTROLLED STUDY; CORONARY ARTERY ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE; DELIRIUM; DISEASE SEVERITY; DRUG USE; EUROPE; FEMALE; FORENSIC PATHOLOGY; HEART LEFT VENTRICLE HYPERTROPHY; HUMAN; MALE; METABOLIC DISORDER; MORTALITY; PATHOLOGY; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROSPECTIVE STUDY; RESPIRATORY TRACT DISEASE; SMALL VESSEL VASCULITIS; SPAIN; SUDDEN DEATH; URINALYSIS; VIOLENCE;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; ALCOHOLISM; AUTOPSY; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; CASE-CONTROL STUDIES; CEREBROVASCULAR DISORDERS; COCAINE; COCAINE-RELATED DISORDERS; CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE; CORONARY THROMBOSIS; DEATH, SUDDEN; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; MIDDLE AGED; MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION; MYOCARDITIS; ORGAN SIZE; PROSPECTIVE STUDIES; SPAIN; YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 76349104801     PISSN: 0195668X     EISSN: 15229645     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehp557     Document Type: Article

References (74)

1. McCord J, Jneid H, Hollander JE, de Lemos JA, Cercek B, Hsue P, Gibler WB, Ohman EM, Drew B, Philippides G, Newby LK, American Heart Association Acute Cardiac Care Committee of the Council on Clinical Cardiology. Management of Cocaine-Associated Chest Pain and Myocardial Infarction. A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association Acute Cardiac Care Committee of the Council on Clinical Cardiology. Circulation 2008;117:1897-1907.
2. Goldberger BA, Graham NA, Nelson SJ, Cadet JL, Gold MS. A marked increase in cocaine-related deaths in the State of Florida: precursor to an epidemic ? J Addict Dis 2007;26:113-116.
3. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA). Cocaine and crack cocaine: a growing public heath issue. Selected Issue 2007 No 3. Available at http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/publications/selected-issues/cocaine. (Consulted 5 February 2008).
4. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA). 2008 Annual report on the state of the drugs problem in Europe. Available at http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/publications/annual-report/2008 (Consulted 6 November 2008).
5. Qureshi AI, Suri MF, Guterman LR, Hopkins LN. Cocaine use and the likelihood of nonfatal myocardial infarction and stroke: data from the third national health and nutrition examinations survey. Circulation 2001;103:502-506.
6. O'Leary ME. Inhibition of HERG potassium channels by cocaethylene: a metabolite of cocaine and ethanol. Cardiovasc Res 2002;53:59-67.
7. Darke S, Kaye S, Duflou J. Comparative cardiac pathology among deaths due to cocaine toxicity, opioid toxicity and non-drug-related causes. Addiction 2006; 101:1771-1777.
8. Egred M, Davis GK. Cocaine and the heart. Postgrad Med J 2005;81:568-571.
9. Karch SB. Cocaine and the heart: clinical and pathological correlations. Adv Biosci 1991;80:211-218.
10. Steven B, Karch SB. Cocaine. Karch's Pathology of Drug Abuse. 4th ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2009. p1-207.
11. Virmani R. Cardiovascular complications of chronic cocaine abuse. Adv Biosci 1991;80:199-210.
12. Mittleman MA, Mintzer D, Maclure M, Tofler GH, Sherwood JB, Muller JE. Triggering myocardial infarction by cocaine. Circulation 1999;99:2737-2741.
13. Benzaquen BS, Cohen V, Eisenberg MJ. Effects of cocaine on the coronary arteries. Am Heart J 2001;142:402-410.
14. Virmani R, Robinowitz M, Smialek SE, Smyth DF. Cardiovascular effects of cocaine: an autopsy study of 40 patients. Am Heart J 1988;115:1068-1076.
15. Brickner ME, Willard JE, Eichhorn EJ, Black J, Grayburn PA. Left ventricular hypertrophy associated with chronic cocaine abuse. Circulation 1991;84:1130-1135.
16. Om A, Ellahham S, Vetrovev GW, Guard C, Reese S, Nixon JV. Left ventricular hypertrophy in normotensive cocaine users. Am Heart J 1993;125:1441-1443.
17. Willens HJ, Chakko SC, Kessler KM. Cardiovascular manifestations of cocaine abuse. A case of recurrent dilated cardiomyopathy. Chest 1994;106:594-600.
18. Dressler FA, Malekzadeh S, Roberts WC. Quantitative analysis of amounts of coronary arterial narrowing in cocaine addicts. Am J Cardiol 1990;65:303-308.
19. Kolodgie FD, Virmani R, Cornhill JF, Herderick EE, Malcon GT, Mergner WJ. Cocaine: an independent risk factor for atherosclerosis. A preliminary report. Atherosclerosis 1992;97:53-62.
20. Kolodgie FD, Wilson PS, Mergner WJ, Virmani R. Cocaine-induced increase in the permeability function of human vascular endothelial cell monolayers. Exp Mol Pahol 1999;66:109-122.
21. Lange RA, Cigarroa RG, Yancy CV, Willard JE, Popma JJ, Sills MN, McBride W, Kim AS, Hillis LD. Cocaine induced coronary artery vasoconstriction. N Engl J Med 1989;321:1557-1562.
22. Kugelmass AD, Oda A, Monahan K, Cabral C, Ware JA. Activation of human platelets by cocaine. Circulation 1993;88:876-883.
23. Moliterno DJ, Lange RA, Gerard RD, Willard JE, Lackner C, Hillis LD. Influence of intranasal cocaine on plasma constituents associated with endogenous thrombosis and thrombolysis. Am J Med 1994;96:492-496.
24. Heesch CM, Wilhelm CR, Ristich J, Adnane J, Bontempo FA, Wagner WR. Cocaine activates platelets and increases the formation of circulating platelet containing microaggregates in humans. Heart 2000;83:688-695.
25. Zhou W, Lin PH, Bush RL, Nguyen L, Lumsdem AB. Acute arterial thrombosis associated with cocaine abuse. J Vasc Surg 2004;40:291-295. (Pubitemid 39055892)
26. Brinkmann B. Harmonization of medico-legal autopsy rules. Committee of Ministers. Council of Europe. Int J Legal Med 1999;113:1-14.
27. Basso C, Burke M, Fornes P, Gallagher PJ, Henriques de Gouveia R, Sheppard M, Thiene G, van der Wal A. Association for European Cardiovascular Pathology. Guidelines for autopsy investigation of sudden cardiac death. Virchows Arch 2008;452:11-18.
28. Wetli CV, Fishbain DA. Cocaine-induced psychosis and sudden death in recreational cocaine users. J Forensic Sci 1985;30:873-880.
29. Wetli CV, Mash D, Karch SB. Cocaine-associated agitated delirium and the neuro-leptic malignant syndrome. Am J Emerg Med 1996;14:425-428.
30. Kitzman DW, Scholtz DG, Hagen PT, Ilstrup DM, Edwards WD. Age-related changes in normal human hearts during the first 10 decades of life. Part II (Maturity): a quantitative anatomic study of 765 specimens from subjects 20 to 99 years old. Mayo Clin Proc 1988;63:137-146.
31. Kalos MH, Whitlock PA. 'Monte-Carlo Methods VolI Basics'. New York: John Wiley & Sons; 1986.
32. Karch SB, Stephens B, Ho CH. Relating cocaine blood concentrations to toxicity. An autopsy study of 99 cases. J Forensic Sci 1998;43:41-45.
33. Darke S, Kaye S, Duflou J. Cocaine-related fatalities in New South Wales, Australia 1993-2000. Drug Alcohol Depend 2005;77:107-114.
34. Darke S, Ross J, Zador D, Sunjic S. Heroin-related deaths in New South Wales, Australia 1992-1996. Drug Alcohol Depend 2000;60:141-150.
35. Hsue PY, McManus D, Selby V, Ren X, Pillutla P, Younes N, Goldschlager N, Waters DD. Cardiac arrest in patients who smoke crack cocaine. Am J Cardiol 2007;99:822-824.
36. Terefe YG, Ashutosh N, Pradhan J, Kondur A, Afonso L. Myocardial infarction with angiographically normal coronary arteries in the contemporary era. Coron Artery Dis 2007;18:621-626.
37. Jenkins AJ, Levine B, Titus J, Smialek JE. The interpretation of cocaine and benzoi-lecgonine concentrations in postmortem cases. Forensic Sci Int 1999;101:17-25.
38. Blaho K, Logan B, Winbery S, Park L, Schwilke E. Blood cocaine and metabolite concentrations, clinical findings, and outcome of patients presenting to an ED. Am J Emerg Med 2000;18:593-598.
39. Karch SB. Interpretation of blood cocaine and metabolite concentrations. Am J Emerg Med 2000;18:635-636.
40. Bertol E, Trignano C, Di Milia MG, Di Padua M, Mari F. Cocaine-related deaths: an enigma still under investigation. Forensic Sci Int 2008;176:121-123.
41. Farré M, de la Torre R, Llorente M, Lamas X, Ugena B, Segura J, Caḿi J. Alcohol and cocaine interactions in humans. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1993;266:1363-1373.
42. Harris D, Everhart ET, Mendelson J, Jones RT. The pharmacology of cocaethylene in humans following cocaine and ethanol administration. Drug Alcohol Depend 2003;72:169-182.
43. Wilson LD, Henning RJ, Suttheiner C, Lavins E, Balraj E, Earl S. Cocaethylene causes dose-dependent reductions in cardiac functions in anesthetized dogs. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1995;26:965-973.
44. Erzouki HK, Baum I, Goldberg SR, Schindler CW. Comparison of the effects of cocaine and its metabolites on cardiovascular function in anesthetized rats. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1993;22:557-563.
45. Littmann L, Monroe MH, Svenson RH. Brugada-type electrocardiographic pattern induced by cocaine. Mayo Clin Proc 2000;75:845-849.
46. Ortega-Carnicer J, Bertos-Polo J, Gutierrez-Tirado C. Aborted sudden death, transient Brugada pattern, and wide QRS dysrrhythmias after massive cocaine ingestion. J Electrocardiol 2001;34:345-349.
47. Antzelevitch C. Brugada syndrome. PACE 2006;29:1130-1159.
48. Zhang S, Rajamani S, Chen Y, Gong Q, Rong Y, Zhou Z, Ruoho A, January CT. Cocaine blocks HERG, but not KvLQT1\+mink, Potassium channels. Mol Pharmacol 2001;59:1069-1076.
49. Guo J, Gang H, Zhang S. Molecular determinants of cocaine block of human Ether-á-go-go-Related gene potassium channels. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2006;317: 865-874.
50. Green RM, Kelly KM, Gabrielsen T, Levine SR, Vanderzant C. Multiple intracereb-ral hemorrhages after smoking 'crack' cocaine. Stroke 1990;21:657-662.
51. Henning RJ, Li Y. Cocaine produces cardiac hypertrophy by protein kinase C dependent mechanisms. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther 2003;8:149-160.
52. Henning RJ, Cuevas J, Ivansicts D, Sanchez A. Cocaine activates calcium/calmodu-lin kinase II and causes cardiomyocyte hypertrophy. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 2006; 48:802-813.
53. Mittelman RE, Wetli CV. Cocaine and sudden 'natural' death. J Forensic Sci 1987; 32:11-19.
54. Corrado D, Basso C, Poletti A, Angelini A, Valente M, Thiene G. Sudden death in the young: is acute coronary thrombosis the major precipitating factor? Circulation 1994;90:2315-2323.
55. Garfia A, Valverde JL, Borondo JC, Candenas I, Lucena J. Vascular lesions in intestinal ischemia induced by cocaine-alcohol abuse: report of a fatal case due to overdose. J Forensic Sci 1990;35:740-745.
56. Montisci M, Thiene G, Ferrara DS, Basso C. Cannabis and cocaine: a lethal cocktail triggering coronary sudden death. Cardiovasc Pathol 2008;17:344-346.
57. Ambrose JA, Barua RS. The pathophysiology of cigarette smoking and cardiovascular disease. An update. J Am Coll Cardiol 2004;43:1731-1737.
58. Moliterno DJ, Willard JE Lange RA, Negus BH, Boehrer JD, Glamann DB, Landau C, Rossen JD, Winniford MD, Hillis LD. Coronary-artery vasoconstriction induced by cocaine, cigarette smoking, or both. N Engl J Med 1994;330:454-459.
59. Mosseri M, Yarom R, Gostman MS, Hasin Y. Histologic evidence for small-vessel coronary artery disease in patients with angina pectoris and patent large coronary arteries. Circulation 1986;74:964-972.
60. Mouhaffel AH, Madu EC, Satmary WA, Fraker TD. Cardiovascular complications of cocaine. Chest 1995;107:1426-1434.
61. Hayes SN, Moyer TP, Morley D, Bove AA. Intravenous cocaine causes epicardial coronary vasoconstriction in the intact dog. Am Heart J 1991;121:1639-1648.
62. Kolodgie FD, Virmani R, Cornhill JF, Herderick EE, Smialek J. Increase in atherosclerosis and adventitial mast cells in cocaine abusers: an alternative mechanism of cocaine-associated coronary vasospasm and thrombosis. J Am Coll Cardiol 1991; 17:1553-15560.
63. Antman EM, Cohen M, Bernink PJLM, McCabe CH, Horacek T, Papuchis G, Mautner B, Corbalan R, Radley D, Braunwald E. The TIMI risk score for unstable angina/non-ST elevation MI: a method for prognostication and therapeutic decision making. JAMA 2000;284:835-842.
64. Granger CB, Goldberg RJ, Dabbous O, Pieper KS, Eagle KA, Cannon CP, Van de Werf F, Avezum A, Goodman SG, Flather MD, Fox KAA. Predictors of hospital mortality in the Global Registry of Acute Coronary Events. Arch Intern Med 2003;163:2345-2353.
65. Manfrini O, Bugiardini R. Barriers to clinical risk scores adoption. Eur Heart J 2007; 28:1045-1046.
66. Yan AT, Yan RT, Huynh T, Casanova A, Raimondo Fitchett DH, Langer A, Goodman SG, for the Canadian Acute Coronary Syndrome Registry 2 Investigators. Understanding physicians' risk stratification of acute coronary syndromes. Insights from the Canadian ACS 2 Registry. Arch Intern Med 2009;169:372-378.
67. Young I, Rifai N. High-sensitivity C-reactive protein and cardiovascular disease. Clin Chem 2009;55:201-202.
68. Ridker P. C-reactive protein and the prediction of cardiovascular events among those at intermediate risk: moving an inflammatory hypothesis towards consensus. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007;49:2129-2138.
69. Lindahl B, Toss H, Siegbahn A, Venge P, Wallentin L. Markers of myocardial damage and inflammation in relation to long-term mortality in unstable coronary artery disease. FRISC Study Group. Fragmin during Instability in Coronary Artery Disease. N Engl J Med 2000;343:1139-1147.
70. Wang TJ, Gona P, Larson MG, Tofler GH, Levy D, Newton-Cheh C, Jacques PF, Rifai N, Selhub J, Robins SJ, Benjamin EJ, D'Agostino RB, Vasan RS. Multiple bio-markers for the prediction of first major cardiovascular events and death. N Engl J Med 2006;355:2631-2639.
71. Folsom AR, Chambless LE, Ballantyne CM, Coresh J, Heiss G, Wu KK, Boerwinkle E, Mosley TH Jr, Sorlie P, Diao G, Sharrett AR. An assessment of incremental risk prediction using C-reactive protein and other novel risk markers: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study. Arch Intern Med 2006;166:1368-1373.
72. Schiele F, Meneveau N, Seronde MF, Chopard R, Descotes-Genon V, Dutheil J, Bassand J-P, on behalf of the 'Reseau de Cardiologie de Franche Comte'. C-reactive protein improves risk prediction in patients with acute coronary syndromes. Eur Heart J 2010;31:290-297. First published on 4 July 2009. doi:10.1093/ eurheartj/ehp273.
73. Kragelund C, Grønning B, Køber L, Hildebrandt P, Steffensen R. N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide and long-term mortality in stable coronary heart disease. N Engl J Med 2005;352:666-675. (Pubitemid 40239214)
74. Morrow DA, de Lemos JA, Blazing MA, Sabatine MS, Murphy SA, Jarolim P, White HD, Fox KA, Califf RM, Braunwald E; A to Z Investigators. Prognostic value of serial B-type natriuretic peptide testing during follow-up of patients with unstable coronary artery disease. JAMA 2005;294:2866-2871.