Use of nanoparticles as therapy for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections

Current Drug Metabolism

Volumn 10, Issue 8, 2009, Pages 875-884

  Liu, Pei Feng ^a,b   Lo, Chih Wei ^a,b,c   Chen, Chao Hsuan ^a,b,d   Hsieh, Ming Fa ^d   Huang, Chun Ming ^a,b,e  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b VA SAN DIEGO HEALTHCARE SYSTEM   (United States)

^c NATIONAL TSING HUA UNIVERSITY   (Taiwan)

^d CHUNG YUAN CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY   (Taiwan)

^e UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SAN DIEGO   (United States)

Author keywords

Antibiotic therapy; Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus; Nanoparticles; Staphylococcal infections; Staphylococcus aureus

Indexed keywords

AMOXICILLIN; AMOXICILLIN PLUS CLAVULANIC ACID; CARIMUNE; CEFALEXIN; CEFAZOLIN; CEFUROXIME; CEFUROXIME AXETIL; CLINDAMYCIN; COTRIMOXAZOLE; DALFOPRISTIN PLUS QUINUPRISTIN; DAPTOMYCIN; DICLOXACILLIN; HUMAN IMMUNOGLOBULIN; IMMUNOGLOBULIN; IMMUNOGLOBULIN G; LINEZOLID; METICILLIN; NANOPARTICLE; OXACILLIN; OXAZOLIDINONE DERIVATIVE; PENICILLIN G; PSEUDOMONIC ACID; RETAPAMULIN; RIFAMPICIN; TEICOPLANIN; TIGECYCLINE; TOXIN; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; VANCOMYCIN;

ABDOMINAL CRAMP; ABDOMINAL PAIN; ALLERGIC REACTION; ANAPHYLAXIS; ANEMIA; ANOREXIA; ARTHRALGIA; BLEEDING; BLISTER; BLOOD CLOTTING DISORDER; BLOOD DISEASE; BONE MARROW TOXICITY; BRAIN TOXICITY; BREAST ABSCESS; BRONCHOSPASM; CARBUNCLE; CELLULITIS; CHILL; CONSTIPATION; DEPRESSION; DERMATITIS; DIARRHEA; DIZZINESS; DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEM; DRUG FEVER; DYSPHAGIA; DYSPNEA; ECTHYMA; ENDOCARDITIS; ERYTHEMA; ESOPHAGITIS; FACE EDEMA; FATIGUE; FEVER; FLU LIKE SYNDROME; FLUSHING; FOLLICULITIS; FURUNCULOSIS; HEADACHE; HEARING LOSS; HEMATOCHEZIA; HEMATOLOGIC DISEASE; HEMOLYTIC ANEMIA; HUMAN; HYPERKALEMIA; HYPERSENSITIVITY; HYPERSENSITIVITY REACTION; HYPOTENSION; IMPETIGO; INJECTION SITE REACTION; INSOMNIA; INTERSTITIAL NEPHRITIS; JAUNDICE; KIDNEY DISEASE; LETHARGY; LEUKOPENIA; LIP DISEASE; LIP SWELLING; LIVER FUNCTION TEST; LIVER TOXICITY; LUNG ABSCESS; MASTITIS; METHICILLIN RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS INFECTION; MOUTH PAIN; MUSCLE SPASM; MYALGIA; NAUSEA; NEPHROTOXICITY; NEUROLOGICAL COMPLICATION; NONHUMAN; OSTEOMYELITIS; OTOTOXICITY; PAIN; PHLEBITIS; PRURITUS; PSEUDOMEMBRANOUS COLITIS; RASH; REVIEW; RIGOR; SCABIES; SEPSIS; SIDE EFFECT; SKIN ABRASION; SKIN ABSCESS; SKIN BRUISING; SKIN DISEASE; SKIN LOOSENING; SKIN ULCER; SORE THROAT; STAPHYLOCOCCAL PNEUMONIA; STAPHYLOCOCCAL SCALDED SKIN SYNDROME; STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; STEVENS JOHNSON SYNDROME; STOMACH DISCOMFORT; THORAX PAIN; THROAT DISEASE; THROAT SWELLING; THROMBOCYTOPENIA; THROMBOSIS; TINNITUS; TONGUE DISEASE; TONGUE SWELLING; TOOTH DISCOLORATION; TOXIC SHOCK SYNDROME; URTICARIA; VAGINITIS; VERNER MORRISON SYNDROME; VESTIBULAR DISORDER; VIRAL CONTAMINATION; VOMITING; WHEEZING;

ANTI-BACTERIAL AGENTS; BACTERIAL TOXINS; DRUG CARRIERS; DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS; HUMANS; METHICILLIN-RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; NANOPARTICLES; STAPHYLOCOCCAL INFECTIONS;

EID: 74249098815     PISSN: 13892002     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/138920009790274522     Document Type: Review

References (164)

1. Laupland, K.B.; Conly, J.M. Treatment of Staphylococcus. aureus colonization and prophylaxis for infection with topical intranasal mupirocin: an evidence-based review. Clin. Infect. Dis., 2003, 37(7), 933-938.
2. van Belkum, A.; Melles, D.C.; Nouwen, J.; van Leeuwen, W.B.; van Wamel, W.; Vos, M.C.; Wertheim, H.F.; Verbrugh, H.A. Co-evolutionary aspects of human colonisation and infection by Staphylococcus aureus. Infect. Genet. Evol., 2009, 9(1), 32-47.
3. Benenson, S.; Zimhony, O.; Dahan, D.; Solomon, M.; Raveh, D.; Schlesinger, Y.; Yinnon, A.M. Atopic dermatitis - a risk factor for invasive Staphylococcus aureus infections: two cases and review. Am. J. Med., 2005, 118(9), 1048-1051.
4. Gallucci, F.; Amato, G.; Esposito, P.; Belli, C.M.; Russo, R.; Uomo, G. Staphylococcus aureus septicemia in non-neutropenic adult patients hospitalized in internal medicine units. Rocz. Akad. Med. Bialymst., 2005, 50, 216-219.
5. Todd, J.K. Staphylococcal infections. Pediatr. Rev., 2005, 26(12), 444-450.
6. Tarkowski, A.; Collins, L.V.; Gjertsson, I.; Hultgren, O.H.; Jonsson, I.M.; Sakiniene, E.; Verdrengh, M. Model systems: modeling human staphylococcal arthritis and sepsis in the mouse. Trends Microbiol., 2001, 9(7), 321-326.
7. Plueckhahn, V.D.; Banks, J. Breast abscess and Staphylococcal disease in a maternity hospital. Br. Med. J., 1964, 2(5406), 414-418.
8. Chiller, K.; Selkin, B.A.; Murakawa, G.J. Skin microflora and bacterial infections of the skin. J. Investig. Dermatol. Symp. Proc., 2001, 6(3), 170-174.
9. Gemmeke, A.; Wollina, U. Folliculitis decalvans of the scalp: response to triple therapy with isotretinoin, clindamycin, and prednisolone. Acta Dermatovenerol. Alp. Panonica. Adriat., 2006, 15(4), 184-186.
10. Felman, A.H.; Shulman, S.T. Staphylococcal osteomyelitis, sepsis, and pulmonary disease. Observations of 10 patients with combined osseous and pulmonary infections. Radiology, 1975, 117(3 Pt 1), 649-655.
11. Amagai, M.; Matsuyoshi, N.; Wang, Z.H.; Andl, C.; Stanley, J.R. Toxin in bullous impetigo and staphylococcal scalded-skin syndrome targets desmoglein 1. Nat. Med., 2000, 6(11), 1275-1277.
12. McCormick, J.K.; Yarwood, J.M.; Schlievert, P.M. Toxic shock syndrome and bacterial superantigens: an update. Annu. Rev. Microbiol., 2001, 55, 77-104.
13. Lina, G.; Gillet, Y.; Vandenesch, F.; Jones, M.E.; Floret, D.; Etienne, J. Toxin involvement in staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome. Clin. Infect. Dis., 1997, 25(6), 1369-1373.
14. Rhee, C.A.; Smith, R.J.; Jackson, I.T. Toxic shock syndrome associated with suction-assisted lipectomy. Aesthetic. Plast. Surg., 1994, 18(2), 161-163.
15. Reiss, M.A. Toxic shock syndrome. Prim. Care Update Ob. Gyns., 2000, 7(3), 85-90.
16. Hitosugi, M.; Takatsu, A.; Kawato, H.; Kai, A. An autopsy case of food poisoning due to Staphylococcus aureus. Leg. Med. (Tokyo), 2001, 3(2), 123-124.
17. Prevost, G.; Mourey, L.; Colin, D.A.; Menestrina, G. Staphylococcal pore-forming toxins. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol., 2001, 257, 53-83.
18. Bhakdi, S.; Tranum-Jensen, J. Alpha-toxin of Staphylococcus. aureus. Microbiol. Rev., 1991, 55(4), 733-751.
19. Song, L.; Hobaugh, M.R.; Shustak, C.; Cheley, S.; Bayley, H.; Gouaux, J.E. Structure of staphylococcal alpha-hemolysin, a heptameric transmembrane pore. Science, 1996, 274(5294), 1859-1866.
20. Gray, G.S.; Kehoe, M. Primary sequence of the alpha-toxin gene from Staphylococcus. aureus wood 46. Infect. Immun., 1984, 46(2), 615-618.
21. Bergdoll, M.S.; Crass, B.A.; Reiser, R.F.; Robbins, R.N.; Davis, J.P. A new staphylococcal enterotoxin, enterotoxin F, associated with toxic-shock-syndrome Staphylococcus aureus isolates. Lancet, 1981, 1(8228), 1017-1021.
22. Dalen, A.B. Production of staphylococcal-toxin in a defined medium and identification of a stimulating factor from yeast extract. J. Gen. Microbiol., 1973, 74(1), 53-60.
23. Gouaux, E.; Hobaugh, M.; Song, L. alpha-Hemolysin, gamma-hemolysin, and leukocidin from Staphylococcus aureus: distant in sequence but similar in structure. Protein Sci., 1997, 6(12), 2631-2635.
24. Valeva, A.; Palmer, M.; Bhakdi, S. Staphylococcal alpha-toxin: formation of the heptameric pore is partially cooperative and proceeds through multiple intermediate stages. Biochemistry, 1997, 36(43), 13298-13304.
25. McElroy, M.C.; Harty, H.R.; Hosford, G.E.; Boylan, G.M.; Pittet, J.F.; Foster, T.J. Alpha-toxin damages the air-blood barrier of the lung in a rat model of Staphylococcus aureus-induced pneumonia. Infect. Immun., 1999, 67(10), 5541-5544.
26. Bhakdi, S.; Muhly, M.; Mannhardt, U.; Hugo, F.; Klapettek, K.; Mueller-Eckhardt, C.; Roka, L. Staphylococcal alpha toxin promotes blood coagulation via attack on human platelets. J. Exp. Med., 1988, 168(2), 527-542.
27. Bernheimer, A.W.; Schwartz, L.L. Isolation and composition of staphylococcal alpha toxin. J. Gen. Microbiol., 1963, 30, 455-468.
28. Bhakdi, S.; Muhly, M.; Fussle, R. Correlation between toxin binding and hemolytic activity in membrane damage by staphylococcal alpha-toxin. Infect. Immun., 1984, 46(2), 318-323.
29. Freer, J.H.; Arbuthnott, J.P. Toxins of Staphylococcus aureus. Pharmacol. Ther., 1982, 19(1), 55-106.
30. Seeger, W.; Bauer, M.; Bhakdi, S. Staphylococcal alpha-toxin elicits hypertension in isolated rabbit lungs. Evidence for thromboxane formation and the role of extracellular calcium. J. Clin. Invest., 1984, 74(3), 849-858.
31. Walmrath, D.; Griebner, M.; Kolb, B.; Grimminger, F.; Galanos, C.; Schade, U.; Seeger, W. Endotoxin primes perfused rabbit lungs for enhanced vasoconstrictor response to staphylococcal alphatoxin. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis., 1993, 148(5), 1179-1186.
32. Seeger, W.; Birkemeyer, R.G.; Ermert, L.; Suttorp, N.; Bhakdi, S.; Duncker, H.R. Staphylococcal alpha-toxin-induced vascular leakage in isolated perfused rabbit lungs. Lab. Invest., 1990, 63(3), 341-349.
33. Suttorp, N.; Seeger, W.; Dewein, E.; Bhakdi, S.; Roka, L. Staphylococcal alpha-toxin-induced PGI2 production in endothelial cells: role of calcium. Am. J. Physiol., 1985, 248(1 Pt 1), C127-134.
34. Jonas, D.; Walev, I.; Berger, T.; Liebetrau, M.; Palmer, M.; Bhakdi, S. Novel path to apoptosis: small transmembrane pores created by staphylococcal alpha-toxin in T lymphocytes evoke internucleosomal DNA degradation. Infect. Immun., 1994, 62(4), 1304-1312.
35. Grimminger, F.; Rose, F.; Sibelius, U.; Meinhardt, M.; Potzsch, B.; Spriestersbach, R.; Bhakdi, S.; Suttorp, N.; Seeger, W. Human endothelial cell activation and mediator release in response to the bacterial exotoxins Escherichia coli hemolysin and staphylococcal alpha-toxin. J. Immunol., 1997, 159(4), 1909-1916.
36. Rose, F.; Kiss, L.; Grimminger, F.; Mayer, K.; Grandel, U.; Seeger, W.; Bieniek, E.; Sibelius, U. E. coli hemolysin-induced lipid mediator metabolism in alveolar macrophages: impact of eicosapentaenoic acid. Am. J. Physiol. Lung. Cell Mol. Physiol., 2000, 279(1), L100-109.
37. Bhakdi, S.; Muhly, M.; Korom, S.; Hugo, F. Release of interleukin-1 beta associated with potent cytocidal action of staphylococcal alpha-toxin on human monocytes. Infect. Immun., 1989, 57(11), 3512-3519.
38. Haslinger, B.; Strangfeld, K.; Peters, G.; Schulze-Osthoff, K.; Sinha, B. Staphylococcus aureus alpha-toxin induces apoptosis in peripheral blood mononuclear cells: role of endogenous tumour necrosis factor-alpha and the mitochondrial death pathway. Cell Microbiol., 2003, 5(10), 729-741.
39. Liang, X.; Ji, Y. Involvement of alpha5beta1-integrin and TNF-alpha in Staphylococcus aureus alpha-toxin-induced death of epithelial cells. Cell Microbiol., 2007, 9(7), 1809-1821.
40. Rose, F.; Dahlem, G.; Guthmann, B.; Grimminger, F.; Maus, U.; Hanze, J.; Duemmer, N.; Grandel, U.; Seeger, W.; Ghofrani, H.A. Mediator generation and signaling events in alveolar epithelial cells attacked by S. aureus alpha-toxin. Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell Mol. Physiol., 2002, 282(2), L207-214.
41. Projan, S.J.; Kornblum, J.; Kreiswirth, B.; Moghazeh, S.L.; Eisner, W.; Novick, R.P. Nucleotide sequence: the beta-hemolysin gene of Staphylococcus aureus. Nucleic Acids Res., 1989, 17(8), 3305.
42. Wiseman, G.M. Factors affecting the sensitization of sheep erythrocytes to staphylococcal beta lysin. Can. J. Microbiol., 1965, 11, 463-471.
43. Doery, H.M.; Magnusson, B.J.; Cheyne, I.M.; Sulasekharam, J. A phospholipase in staphylococcal toxin which hydrolyses sphingomyelin. Nature, 1963, 198, 1091-1092.
44. Marques, M.B.; Weller, P.F.; Parsonnet, J.; Ransil, B.J.; Nicholson-Weller, A. Phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C, a possible virulence factor of Staphylococcus aureus. J. Clin. Microbiol., 1989, 27(11), 2451-2454.
45. Walev, I.; Weller, U.; Strauch, S.; Foster, T.; Bhakdi, S. Selective killing of human monocytes and cytokine release provoked by sphingomyelinase (beta-toxin) of Staphylococcus aureus. Infect. Immun., 1996, 64(8), 2974-2979.
46. Doery, H.M.; Magnusson, B.J.; Gulasekharam, J.; Pearson, J.E. The properties of phospholipase enzymes in staphylococcal toxins. J. Gen. Microbiol., 1965, 40(2), 283-296.
47. Russell, R.J.; Wilkinson, P.C.; McInroy, R.J.; McKay, S.; McCartney, A.C.; Arbuthnott, J.P. Effects of staphylococcal products on locomotion and chemotaxis of human blood neutrophils and monocytes. J. Med. Microbiol., 1976, 9(4), 433-439.
48. O'Callaghan, R.J.; Callegan, M.C.; Moreau, J.M.; Green, L.C.; Foster, T.J.; Hartford, O.M.; Engel, L.S.; Hill, J.M. Specific roles of alpha-toxin and beta-toxin during Staphylococcus aureus corneal infection. Infect. Immun., 1997, 65(5), 1571-1578.
49. Bramley, A.J.; Patel, A.H.; O'Reilly, M.; Foster, R.; Foster, T.J. Roles of alpha-toxin and beta-toxin in virulence of Staphylococcus. aureus for the mouse mammary gland. Infect. Immun., 1989, 57(8), 2489-2494.
50. Tajima, A.; Iwase, T.; Shinji, H.; Seki, K.; Mizunoe, Y. Inhibition of endothelial interleukin-8 production and neutrophil transmigration by Staphylococcus aureus beta-hemolysin. Infect. Immun., 2009, 77(1), 327-334.
51. Hayashida, A.; Bartlett, A.H.; Foster, T.J.; Park, P.W. Staphylococcus. aureus beta-toxin induces lung injury through syndecan-1. Am. J. Pathol., 2009, 174(2), 509-518.
52. Kantor, H.S.; Temples, B.; Shaw, W.V. Staphylococcal delta hemolysin: purification and characterization. Arch Biochem. Biophys., 1972, 151(1), 142-156.
53. Dinges, M.M.; Orwin, P.M.; Schlievert, P.M. Exotoxins of Staphylococcus aureus. Clin. Microbiol. Rev., 2000, 13(1), 16-34, table of contents.
54. Dhople, V.M.; Nagaraj, R. Delta-toxin, unlike melittin, has only hemolytic activity and no antimicrobial activity: rationalization of this specific biological activity. Biosci. Rep., 1993, 13(4), 245-250.
55. Verdon, J.; Girardin, N.; Lacombe, C.; Berjeaud, J.M.; Hechard, Y. delta-hemolysin, an update on a membrane-interacting peptide. Peptides, 2009, 30(4), 817-823.
56. Wiseman, G.M. The hemolysins of Staphylococcus aureus. Bacteriol. Rev., 1975, 39(4), 317-344.
57. Kreger, A.S.; Kim, K.S.; Zaboretzky, F.; Bernheimer, A.W. Purification and properties of staphylococcal delta hemolysin. Infect. Immun., 1971, 3(3), 449-465.
58. Marks, J.; Vaughan, A.C. Staphylococcal delta-haemolysin. J. Pathol. Bacteriol., 1950, 62(4), 597-615.
59. Bechinger, B.; Lohner, K. Detergent-like actions of linear amphipathic cationic antimicrobial peptides. Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 2006, 1758(9), 1529-1539.
60. Thiaudiere, E.; Siffert, O.; Talbot, J.C.; Bolard, J.; Alouf, J.E.; Dufourcq, J. The amphiphilic alpha-helix concept. Consequences on the structure of staphylococcal delta-toxin in solution and bound to lipids. Eur. J. Biochem., 1991, 195(1), 203-213.
61. Mellor, I.R.; Thomas, D.H.; Sansom, M.S. Properties of ion channels formed by Staphylococcus aureus delta-toxin. Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 1988, 942(2), 280-294.
62. Prevost, G.; Cribier, B.; Couppie, P.; Petiau, P.; Supersac, G.; Finck-Barbancon, V.; Monteil, H.; Piemont, Y. Panton-Valentine leucocidin and gamma-hemolysin from Staphylococcus. aureus ATCC 49775 are encoded by distinct genetic loci and have different biological activities. Infect. Immun., 1995, 63(10), 4121-4129.
63. Prevost, G.; Bouakham, T.; Piemont, Y.; Monteil, H. Characterisation of a synergohymenotropic toxin produced by Staphylococcus intermedius. FEBS Lett., 1995, 376(3), 135-140.
64. Gravet, A.; Colin, D.A.; Keller, D.; Girardot, R.; Monteil, H.; Prevost, G. Characterization of a novel structural member, LukE-LukD, of the bi-component staphylococcal leucotoxins family. FEBS Lett,. 1998, 436(2), 202-208.
65. Colin, D.A.; Mazurier, I.; Sire, S.; Finck-Barbancon, V. Interaction of the two components of leukocidin from Staphylococcus aureus with human polymorphonuclear leukocyte membranes: sequential binding and subsequent activation. Infect. Immun., 1994, 62(8), 3184-3188.
66. Couch, J.L.; Soltis, M.T.; Betley, M.J. Cloning and nucleotide sequence of the type E staphylococcal enterotoxin gene. J. Bacteriol., 1988, 170(7), 2954-2960.
67. Kamio, Y.; Rahman, A.; Nariya, H.; Ozawa, T.; Izaki, K. The two staphylococcal bi-component toxins, leukocidin and gamma-hemolysin, share one component in common. FEBS Lett., 1993, 321(1), 15-18.
68. Konig, B.; Prevost, G.; Konig, W. Composition of staphylococcal bi-component toxins determines pathophysiological reactions. J. Med. Microbiol., 1997, 46(6), 479-485.
69. Supersac, G.; Prevost, G.; Piemont, Y. Sequencing of leucocidin R from Staphylococcus. aureus P83 suggests that staphylococcal leucocidins and gamma-hemolysin are members of a single, two-component family of toxins. Infect. Immun., 1993, 61(2), 580-587.
70. Menestrina, G.; Serra, M.D.; Prevost, G. Mode of action of beta-barrel pore-forming toxins of the staphylococcal alpha-hemolysin family. Toxicon, 2001, 39(11), 1661-1672.
71. Miles, G.; Movileanu, L.; Bayley, H. Subunit composition of a bicomponent toxin: staphylococcal leukocidin forms an octameric transmembrane pore. Protein Sci., 2002, 11(4), 894-902.
72. Meunier, O.; Falkenrodt, A.; Monteil, H.; Colin, D.A. Application of flow cytometry in toxinology: pathophysiology of human polymorphonuclear leukocytes damaged by a pore-forming toxin from Staphylococcus aureus. Cytometry, 1995, 21(3), 241-247.
73. Siqueira, J.A.; Speeg-Schatz, C.; Freitas, F.I.; Sahel, J.; Monteil, H.; Prevost, G. Channel-forming leucotoxins from Staphylococcus aureus cause severe inflammatory reactions in a rabbit eye model. J. Med. Microbiol., 1997, 46(6), 486-494.
74. Bohach, G.A.; Fast, D.J.; Nelson, R.D.; Schlievert, P.M. Staphylococcal and streptococcal pyrogenic toxins involved in toxic shock syndrome and related illnesses. Crit. Rev. Microbiol., 1990, 17(4), 251-272.
75. Schlievert, P.M.; Bohach, G.A.; Ohlendorf, D.H.; Stauffacher, C.V.; Leung, D.Y.; Murray, D.L.; Prasad, G.S.; Earhart, C.A.; Jablonski, L.M.; Hoffmann, M.L.; Chi, Y.I. Molecular structure of staphylococcus and streptococcus superantigens. J. Clin. Immunol., 1995, 15(6 Suppl), 4S-10S.
76. Marrack, P.; Kappler, J. The staphylococcal enterotoxins and their relatives. Science, 1990, 248(4956), 705-711.
77. Jardetzky, T.S.; Brown, J.H.; Gorga, J.C.; Stern, L.J.; Urban, R.G.; Chi, Y.I.; Stauffacher, C.; Strominger, J.L.; Wiley, D.C. Three-dimensional structure of a human class II histocompatibility molecule complexed with superantigen. Nature, 1994, 368(6473), 711-718.
78. Fleischer, B.; Schrezenmeier, H. T cell stimulation by staphylococcal enterotoxins. Clonally variable response and requirement for major histocompatibility complex class II molecules on accessory or target cells. J. Exp. Med., 1988, 167(5), 1697-1707.
79. Regelmann, W.E.; Gray, E.D.; Wannamaker, L.W. Characterization of the human cellular immune response to purified group A streptococcal blastogen A1. J. Immunol, 1982, 128(4), 1631-1636.
80. Holtfreter, S.; Broker, B.M. Staphylococcal superantigens: do they play a role in sepsis? Arch. Immunol. Ther. Exp. (Warsz), 2005, 53(1), 13-27.
81. Paliard, X.; West, S.G.; Lafferty, J.A.; Clements, J.R.; Kappler, J.W.; Marrack, P.; Kotzin, B.L. Evidence for the effects of a superantigen in rheumatoid arthritis. Science, 1991, 253(5017), 325-329.
82. Sauter, C.; Wolfensberger, C. Interferon in human serum after injection of endotoxin. Lancet, 1980, 2(8199), 852-853.
83. Kotzin, B.L.; Leung, D.Y.; Kappler, J.; Marrack, P. Superantigens and their potential role in human disease. Adv. Immunol., 1993, 54, 99-166.
84. Schlievert, P.M. Role of superantigens in human disease. J. Infect. Dis., 1993, 167(5), 997-1002.
85. Canonico, P.G.; Van Zwieten, M.J. Swelling of mitochondria from rabbit liver induced by staphylococcal enterotoxin B. J. Infect. Dis., 1971, 124(4), 372-378.
86. Schlievert, P.M.; Bettin, K.M.; Watson, D.W. Inhibition of ribonucleic acid synthesis by group A streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin. Infect. Immun., 1980, 27(2), 542-548.
87. Blomster-Hautamaa, D.A.; Kreiswirth, B.N.; Kornblum, J.S.; Novick, R.P.; Schlievert, P.M. The nucleotide and partial amino acid sequence of toxic shock syndrome toxin-1. J. Biol. Chem., 1986, 261(33), 15783-15786.
88. Edwin, C.; Kass, E.H. Identification of functional antigenic segments of toxic shock syndrome toxin 1 by differential immunoreactivity and by differential mitogenic responses of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells, using active toxin fragments. Infect. Immun., 1989, 57(7), 2230-2236.
89. Holmberg, S.D.; Blake, P.A. Staphylococcal food poisoning in the United States. New facts and old misconceptions. JAMA, 1984, 251(4), 487-489.
90. Sugiyama, H.; Hayama, T. Abdominal viscera as site of emetic action for staphylococcal enterotoxin in the monkey. J. Infect. Dis., 1965, 115(4), 330-336.
91. Jett, M.; Brinkley, W.; Neill, R.; Gemski, P.; Hunt, R. Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxin B challenge of monkeys: correlation of plasma levels of arachidonic acid cascade products with occurrence of illness. Infect. Immun., 1990, 58(11), 3494-3499.
92. Araake, M.; Uchiyama, T.; Imanishi, K.; Yan, X.J. Activation of human vascular endothelial cells by IFN-gamma: acquisition of HLA class II expression, TSST-1-binding activity and accessory activity in T cell activation by the toxin. Int. Arch. Allergy Appl. Immunol., 1991, 96(1), 55-61.
93. Krakauer, T. Cell adhesion molecules are co-receptors for staphylococcal enterotoxin B-induced T-cell activation and cytokine production. Immunol. Lett., 1994, 39(2), 121-125.
94. Uchiyama, T.; Araake, M.; Yan, X.J.; Miyanaga, Y.; Igarashi, H. Involvement of HLA class II molecules in acquisition of staphylococcal enterotoxin A-binding activity and accessory cell activity in activation of human T cells by related toxins in vascular endothelial cells. Clin. Exp. Immunol., 1992, 87(2), 322-328.
95. Campbell, W.N.; Fitzpatrick, M.; Ding, X.; Jett, M.; Gemski, P.; Goldblum, S.E. SEB is cytotoxic and alters EC barrier function through protein tyrosine phosphorylation in vitro. Am. J. Physiol., 1997, 273(1 Pt 1), L31-39.
96. Bailey, C.J.; Lockhart, B.P.; Redpath, M.B.; Smith, T.P. The epidermolytic (exfoliative) toxins of Staphylococcus aureus. Med. Microbiol. Immunol., 1995, 184(2), 53-61.
97. Elias, P.M.; Fritsch, P.; Dahl, M.V.; Wolff, K. Staphylococcal toxic epidermal necrolysis: pathogenesis and studies on the subcellular site of action of exfoliatin. J. Invest. Dermatol., 1975, 65(6), 501-512.
98. Kapral, F.A.; Miller, M.M. Product of Staphylococcus aureus responsible for the scalded-skin syndrome. Infect. Immun., 1971, 4(5), 541-545.
99. Lee, C.Y.; Schmidt, J.J.; Johnson-Winegar, A.D.; Spero, L.; Iandolo, J.J. Sequence determination and comparison of the exfoliative toxin A and toxin B genes from Staphylococcus aureus. J. Bacteriol., 1987, 169(9), 3904-3909.
100. Fleischer, B.; Bailey, C.J. Recombinant epidermolytic (exfoliative) toxin A of Staphylococcus aureus is not a superantigen. Med. Microbiol. Immunol., 1992, 180(6), 273-278.
101. Chapes, S.K.; Hoynowski, S.M.; Woods, K.M.; Armstrong, J.W.; Beharka, A.A.; Iandolo, J.J. Staphylococcus-mediated T-cell activation and spontaneous natural killer cell activity in the absence of major histocompatibility complex class II molecules. Infect. Immun., 1993, 61(9), 4013-4016.
102. Beharka, A.A.; Armstrong, J.W.; Iandolo, J.J.; Chapes, S.K. Binding and activation of major histocompatibility complex class II-deficient macrophages by staphylococcal exotoxins. Infect. Immun., 1994, 62(9), 3907-3915.
103. Tokura, Y.; Yagi, J.; O'Malley, M.; Lewis, J.M.; Takigawa, M.; Edelson, R.L.; Tigelaar, R.E. Superantigenic staphylococcal exotoxins induce T-cell proliferation in the presence of Langerhans cells or class II-bearing keratinocytes and stimulate keratinocytes to produce T-cell-activating cytokines. J. Invest. Dermatol., 1994, 102(1), 31-38.
104. Tacconelli, E.; Cataldo, M.A. Antimicrobial therapy of Staphylococcus. aureus bloodstream infection. Expert Opin. Pharmacother., 2007, 8(15), 2505-2518.
105. Nishijima, S.; Kurokawa, I.; Nakaya, H. Susceptibility change to antibiotics of Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated from skin infections between July 1994 and November 2000. J. Infect. Chemother., 2002, 8(2), 187-189.
106. Tuzuner-Oncul, A.M.; Ungor, C.; Dede, U.; Kisnisci, R.S. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. (MRSA) osteomyelitis of the mandible. Oral. Surg. Oral. Med. Oral. Pathol. Oral. Radiol. Endod., 2009, 107(6), e1-4.
107. Ender, M.; Berger-Bachi, B.; McCallum, N. A novel DNA-binding protein modulating methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus. aureus. BMC Microbiol., 2009, 9, 15.
108. Farley, J.E. Epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and treatment options for skin and soft tissue infection caused by community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J. Am. Acad. Nurse Pract., 2008, 20(2), 85-92.
109. Diep, B.A.; Carleton, H.A.; Chang, R.F.; Sensabaugh, G.F.; Perdreau-Remington, F. Roles of 34 virulence genes in the evolution of hospital- and community-associated strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J. Infect. Dis., 2006, 193(11), 1495-1503.
110. Kluytmans-Vandenbergh, M.F.; Kluytmans, J.A. Community-acquired methicillin-resistant. Staphylococcus aureus: current perspectives. Clin. Microbiol. Infect., 2006, 12. (Suppl 1), 9-15.
111. Moellering, R.C., Jr. Current treatment options for community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection. Clin. Infect. Dis., 2008, 46(7), 1032-1037.
112. Blondeau, J.M.; Sanche, S.E. Quinupristin/dalfopristin. Expert. Opin. Pharmacother., 2002, 3(9), 1341-1364.
113. Sader, H.S.; Jones, R.N.; Stilwell, M.G.; Dowzicky, M.J.; Fritsche, T.R. Tigecycline activity tested against 26,474 bloodstream infection isolates: a collection from 6 continents. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 2005, 52(3), 181-186.
114. Khawcharoenporn, T.; Alan, T. Oral antibiotic treatment for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus skin and soft tissue infections: review of the literature. Hawaii Med. J., 2006, 65(10), 290-293.
115. Bamberger, D.M.; Boyd, S.E. Management of. Staphylococcus. aureus infections. Am. Fam. Physician, 2005, 72(12), 2474-2481.
116. Kim, J.S.; Kuk, E.; Yu, K.N.; Kim, J.H.; Park, S.J.; Lee, H.J.; Kim, S.H.; Park, Y.K.; Park, Y.H.; Hwang, C.Y.; Kim, Y.K.; Lee, Y.S.; Jeong, D.H.; Cho, M.H. Antimicrobial effects of silver nanoparticles. Nanomedicine, 2007, 3(1), 95-101.
117. Panacek, A.; Kvitek, L.; Prucek, R.; Kolar, M.; Vecerova, R.; Pizurova, N.; Sharma, V.K.; Nevecna, T.; Zboril, R. Silver colloid nanoparticles: synthesis, characterization, and their antibacterial activity. J. Phys. Chem. B, 2006, 110(33), 16248-16253.
118. Sambhy, V.; MacBride, M.M.; Peterson, B.R.; Sen, A. Silver bromide nanoparticle/polymer composites: dual action tunable antimicrobial materials. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2006, 128(30), 9798-9808.
119. Gu, H.W.; Ho, P.L.; Tong, E.; Wang, L.; Xu, B. Presenting vancomycin on nanoparticles to enhance antimicrobial activities. Nano. Lett., 2003, 3(9), 1261-1263.
120. Morones, J.R.; Elechiguerra, J.L.; Camacho, A.; Holt, K.; Kouri, J.B.; Ramirez, J.T.; Yacaman, M.J. The bactericidal effect of silver nanoparticles. Nanotechnology, 2005, 16(10), 2346-2353.
121. Dye, D.; Watkins, J. Suspected anaphylactic reaction to Cremophor EL. Br. Med. J, 1980, 280(6228), 1353.
122. Bender, A.R.; von Briesen, H.; Kreuter, J.; Duncan, I.B.; Rubsamen-Waigmann, H. Efficiency of nanoparticles as a carrier system for antiviral agents in human immunodeficiency virus-infected human monocytes/macrophages in vitro. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 1996, 40(6), 1467-1471.
123. Lobenberg, R.; Araujo, L.; von Briesen, H.; Rodgers, E.; Kreuter, J. Body distribution of azidothymidine bound to hexyl-cyanoacrylate nanoparticles after i.v. injection to rats. J. Control. Release, 1998, 50(1-3), 21-30.
124. Torchilin, V.P. Nanoparticulates as drug carriers, Imperial College Press; Distributed by World Scientific Pub.: London. Hackensack, N.J. 2006.
125. Prior, S.; Gamazo, C.; Irache, J.M.; Merkle, H.P.; Gander, B. Gentamicin encapsulation in PLA/PLGA microspheres in view of treating Brucella infections. Int. J. Pharm., 2000, 196(1), 115-125.
126. Barratt, G. Colloidal drug carriers: achievements and perspectives. Cell. Mol. Life. Sci., 2003, 60(1), 21-37.
127. Pinto-Alphandary, H.; Andremont, A.; Couvreur, P. Targeted delivery of antibiotics using liposomes and nanoparticles: research and applications. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents, 2000, 13(3), 155-168.
128. Fattal, E.; Youssef, M.; Couvreur, P.; Andremont, A. Treatment of experimental salmonellosis in mice with ampicillin-bound nanoparticles. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 1989, 33(9), 1540-1543.
129. Fontana, G.; Pitarresi, G.; Tomarchio, V.; Carlisi, B.; San Biagio, P.L. Preparation, characterization and in vitro antimicrobial activity of ampicillin-loaded polyethylcyanoacrylate nanoparticles. Biomaterials, 1998, 19(11-12), 1009-1017.
130. Fontana, G.; Licciardi, M.; Mansueto, S.; Schillaci, D.; Giammona, G. Amoxicillin-loaded polyethylcyanoacrylate nanoparticles: influence of PEG coating on the particle size, drug release rate and phagocytic uptake. Biomaterials, 2001, 22(21), 2857-2865.
131. Santos-Magalhaes, N.S.; Pontes, A.; Pereira, V.M.; Caetano, M.N. Colloidal carriers for benzathine penicillin G: nanoemulsions and nanocapsules. Int. J. Pharm., 2000, 208(1-2), 71-80.
132. Turos, E.; Long, T.E.; Konaklieva, M.I.; Coates, C.; Shim, J.Y.; Dickey, S.; Lim, D.V.; Cannons, A. N-thiolated beta-lactams: novel antibacterial agents for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett., 2002, 12(16), 2229-2231.
133. Turos, E.; Coates, C.; Shim, J.Y.; Wang, Y.; Leslie, J.M.; Long, T.E.; Reddy, G.S.; Ortiz, A.; Culbreath, M.; Dickey, S.; Lim, D.V.; Alonso, E.; Gonzalez, J. N-Methylthio beta-lactam antibacterials: effects of the C3/C4 ring substituents on anti-MRSA activity. Bioorg. Med. Chem., 2005, 13(23), 6289-6308.
134. Bos, M.P.; Tommassen, J. Biogenesis of the Gram-negative bacterial outer membrane. Curr. Opin. Microbiol., 2004, 7(6), 610-616.
135. Caroff, M.; Karibian, D. Structure of bacterial lipopolysaccharides. Carbohydr. Res., 2003, 338(23), 2431-2447.
136. Gottenbos, B.; Grijpma, D.W.; van der Mei, H.C.; Feijen, J.; Busscher, H.J. Antimicrobial effects of positively charged surfaces on adhering Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. J. Antimicrob. Chemother., 2001, 48(1), 7-13.
137. Gottenbos, B.; van der Mei, H.C.; Klatter, F.; Grijpma, D.W.; Feijen, J.; Nieuwenhuis, P.; Busscher, H.J. Positively charged biomaterials exert antimicrobial effects on gram-negative bacilli in rats. Biomaterials, 2003, 24(16), 2707-2710.
138. Armstrong, R.A. The microbiology of the eye. Ophthalmic. Physiol. Opt., 2000, 20(6), 429-441.
139. Bourcier, T.; Thomas, F.; Borderie, V.; Chaumeil, C.; Laroche, L. Bacterial keratitis: predisposing factors, clinical and microbiological review of 300 cases. Br. J. Ophthalmol., 2003, 87(7), 834-838.
140. Egger, S.F.; Ruckhofer, J.; Alzner, E.; Hell, M.; Hitzl, W.; Huber-Spitzy, V.; Grabner, G. In vitro susceptibilities to topical antibiotics of bacteria isolated from the surface of clinically symptomatic eyes. Ophthalmic. Res., 2001, 33(2), 117-120.
141. Dillen, K.; Vandervoort, J.; Van den Mooter, G.; Ludwig, A. Evaluation of ciprofloxacin-loaded Eudragit RS100 or RL100/PLGA nanoparticles. Int. J. Pharm., 2006, 314(1), 72-82.
142. Turos, E.; Konaklieva, M.I.; Ren, R.X.F.; Shi, H.C.; Gonzalez, J.; Dickey, S.; Lim, D. N-thiolated bicyclic and monocyclic beta-lactams. Tetrahedron, 2000, 56(31), 5571-5578.
143. Patel, V.R.; Amiji, M.M. Preparation and characterization of freeze-dried chitosan-poly(ethylene oxide) hydrogels for site-specific antibiotic delivery in the stomach. Pharm. Res., 1996, 13(4), 588-593.
144. Odian, G.G. Principles of Polymerization, Wiley: New York 1991.
145. Turos, E.; Shim, J.Y.; Wang, Y.; Greenhalgh, K.; Reddy, G.S.; Dickey, S.; Lim, D.V. Antibiotic-conjugated polyacrylate nanoparticles: new opportunities for development of anti-MRSA agents. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett., 2007, 17(1), 53-56.
146. Ghaffari, A.; Miller, C.C.; McMullin, B.; Ghahary, A. Potential application of gaseous nitric oxide as a topical antimicrobial agent. Nitric Oxide, 2006, 14(1), 21-29.
147. Friedman, A.J.; Han, G.; Navati, M.S.; Chacko, M.; Gunther, L.; Alfieri, A.; Friedman, J.M. Sustained release nitric oxide releasing nanoparticles: characterization of a novel delivery platform based on nitrite containing hydrogel/glass composites. Nitric Oxide, 2008, 19(1), 12-20.
148. Rabea, E.I.; Badawy, M.E.; Stevens, C.V.; Smagghe, G.; Steurbaut, W. Chitosan as antimicrobial agent: applications and mode of action. Biomacromolecules, 2003, 4(6), 1457-1465.
149. Martinez-Aguilar, G.; Hammerman, W.A.; Mason, E.O., Jr.; Kaplan, S.L. Clindamycin treatment of invasive infections caused by community-acquired, methicillin-resistant and methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus. aureus in children. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J., 2003, 22(7), 593-598.
150. Norrby, S.R.; Nord, C.E.; Finch, R. Lack of development of new antimicrobial drugs: a potential serious threat to public health. Lancet. Infect. Dis, 2005, 5(2), 115-119.
151. Ball, P. The clinical development and launch of amoxicillin/clavulanate for the treatment of a range of community-acquired infections. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents, 2007, 30 (Suppl 2), S113-117.
152. Carrizosa, J.; Santoro, J.; Kaye, D. Treatment of experimental Staphylococcus. aureus endocarditis: comparison of cephalothin, cefazolin, and methicillin. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 1978, 13(1), 74-77.
153. Norgaard, M.; Gudmundsdottir, G.; Larsen, C.S.; Schonheyder, H.C. Staphylococcus. aureus meningitis: experience with cefuroxime treatment during a 16 year period in a Danish region. Scand. J. Infect. Dis., 2003, 35(5), 311-314.
154. Records, R.E. Intraocular penetration of dicloxacillin in experimental animals. Invest. Ophthalmol., 1968, 7(6), 663-667.
155. Maltezou, H.C.; Giamarellou, H. Community-acquired methicillin-resistant. Staphylococcus. aureus infections. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents, 2006, 27(2), 87-96.
156. Hughes, D.W.; Frei, C.R.; Maxwell, P.R.; Green, K.; Patterson, J.E.; Crawford, G.E.; Lewis, J.S., 2nd. Continuous versus intermittent infusion of oxacillin for treatment of infective endocarditis caused by methicillin- susceptible Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 2009, 53(5), 2014-2019.
157. Woodford, N.; Afzal-Shah, M.; Warner, M.; Livermore, D.M. In vitro activity of retapamulin against Staphylococcus aureus isolates resistant to fusidic acid and mupirocin. J. Antimicrob. Chemother., 2008, 62(4), 766-768.
158. Jones, T.; Yeaman, M.R.; Sakoulas, G.; Yang, S.J.; Proctor, R.A.; Sahl, H.G.; Schrenzel, J.; Xiong, Y.Q.; Bayer, A.S. Failures in clinical treatment of Staphylococcus aureus infection with daptomycin are associated with alterations in surface charge, membrane phospholipid asymmetry, and drug binding. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 2008, 52(1), 269-278.
159. Sambatakou, H.; Giamarellos-Bourboulis, E.J.; Grecka, P.; Chryssouli, Z.; Giamarellou, H. In-vitro activity and killing effect of quinupristin/dalfopristin (RP59500) on nosocomial Staphylococcus. aureus and interactions with rifampicin and ciprofloxacin against methicillin-resistant isolates. J. Antimicrob. Chemother., 1998, 41(3), 349-355.
160. Nathani, N.; Iles, P.; Elliott, T.S. Successful treatment of MRSA native valve endocarditis with oral linezolid therapy: a case report. J. Infect., 2005, 51(4), e213-215.
161. Kaya, O.; Akcam, F.Z.; Temel, E.N. In vitro activities of linezolid and tigecycline against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains. Microb. Drug. Resist., 2008, 14(2), 151-153.
162. Bababeygy, S.R.; Silva, R.A.; Sun, Y.; Jain, A. Rifampin and linezolid in the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus preseptal cellulitis. Ophthal. Plast. Reconstr. Surg., 2009, 25(3), 227-228.
163. Sipahi, O.R.; Arda, B.; Yurtseven, T.; Sipahi, H.; Ozgiray, E.; Suntur, B.M.; Ulusoy, S. Vancomycin versus teicoplanin in the therapy of experimental methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) meningitis. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents, 2005, 26(5), 412-415.
164. Grim, S.A.; Rapp, R.P.; Martin, C.A.; Evans, M.E. Trimethoprimsulfamethoxazole as a viable treatment option for infections caused