Explaining conifer dominance in Afrotemperate forests: Shade tolerance favours Podocarpus latifolius over angiosperm species

Forest Ecology and Management

Volumn 259, Issue 2, 2009, Pages 176-186

  Adie, Hylton ^a   Lawes, Michael J ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF KWAZULU NATAL   (South Africa)

^b CHARLES DARWIN UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

Conifer; Light transmission; Podocarpus; Regeneration; Relative shade tolerance; Warm temperate forest

Indexed keywords

ADVANCED REGENERATION; ANGIOSPERM SPECIES; CANOPY SPECIES; COMPETITIVE INTERACTIONS; FOREST GAPS; FOREST SITES; GAP FORMATION; GROUND VEGETATION; LIGHT GRADIENTS; PODOCARPUS; POPULATION STRUCTURES; REGENERATION FAILURE; SHADE TOLERANCE; SIZE CLASS; SOUTH AFRICA; TEMPERATE FORESTS; UNDERSTOREY;

LIGHT TRANSMISSION; TRANSPARENCY;

REFORESTATION;

ANGIOSPERM; COMPETITION (ECOLOGY); CONIFEROUS FOREST; DOMINANCE; FOREST CANOPY; GAP DYNAMICS; HABITAT STRUCTURE; LIGHT EFFECT; REGENERATION; SHADE TOLERANCE; SPECIES DIVERSITY;

FORESTRY; PODOCARPUS; REFORESTATION; SOFTWOODS; TRANSMITTANCE; TRANSPARENCE;

CONIFEROPHYTA; FILICOPHYTA; MAGNOLIOPHYTA; POACEAE; PODOCARPUS; PODOCARPUS LATIFOLIUS;

EID: 70450223114     PISSN: 03781127     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.foreco.2009.10.006     Document Type: Article

References (124)

1. Adie H., and Lawes M.J. Role reversal in the stand dynamics of an angiosperm-conifer forest: colonising angiosperms precede a shade-tolerant conifer in Afrotemperate forest. For. Ecol. Manage. 258 (2009) 159-168
2. Adie, H., Lawes, M.J. Podocarps in Africa: temperate zone relicts or rainforest survivors? In: Turner, B.L., Cernusak, L. (Eds.), Podocarpaceae in Tropical Forests: Ecology, Ecophysiology, and Mineral Nutrition. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, in press.
3. Anderson M.C. Studies of the woodland light climate: I. The photographic computation of light conditions. J. Ecol. 52 (1964) 27-41
4. Armesto J.J., Villagrán C., Aravena J.C., Pérez C., Smith-Ramirez C., Cortés M., and Hedin L. Conifer forests of the Chilean coastal range. In: Enright N.J., and Hill R.S. (Eds). Ecology of the Southern Conifers (1995), Melbourne University Press, Carlton 156-170
5. Ashton P.M.S., Gunatilleke C.V.S., and Gunatilleke I.A.U.N. Seedling survival and growth of four Shorea species in a Sri Lankan rainforest. J. Trop. Ecol. 11 (1995) 263-279
6. Beckage B., Clark J.S., Clinton B.D., and Haines L. A long-term study of tree seedling recruitment in southern Appalachian forests: the effects of canopy gaps and shrub understories. Can. J. For. Res. 30 (2000) 1617-1631
7. Becker P. Competition in the regeneration niche between conifers and angiosperms: Bond's slow seedling hypothesis. Funct. Ecol. 14 (2000) 401-412
8. Bloor J.M.G., and Grubb P.J. Growth and mortality in high and low light: trends among 15 shade-tolerant tropical rain forest tree species. J. Ecol. 91 (2003) 77-85
9. Bond W.J. The tortoise and the hare: ecology of angiosperm dominance and gymnosperm persistence. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 36 (1989) 227-249
10. Bond W.J. Fire. In: Cowling R., Richardson D.M., and Pierce S.M. (Eds). Vegetation of Southern Africa (1997), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 421-446
11. Brodribb T., and Hill R.S. The photosynthetic drought physiology of a diverse group of southern hemisphere conifer species is correlated with minimum seasonal rainfall. Funct. Ecol. 12 (1998) 465-471
12. Brodribb, T.J. A functional analysis of Podocarp ecology. In: Turner, B.L., Cernusak, L. (Eds.), Podocarpaceae in Tropical Forests: Ecology, Ecophysiology, and Mineral Nutrition. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, in press.
13. Brodribb T.J., Feild T.S., and Jordan G.J. Leaf maximum photosynthetic rate and venation are linked by hydraulics. Plant Physiol. 144 (2007) 1890-1898
14. Brodribb T.J., Holbrook N.M., and Hill R.S. Seedling growth in conifers and angiosperms: impacts of contrasting xylem structure. Aust. J. Bot. 53 (2005) 749-755
15. Brokaw N.V.L. Treefalls, regrowth, and community structure in tropical forests. In: Pickett S.T.A., and White P.S. (Eds). The Ecology of Natural Disturbance and Patch Dynamics (1985), Academic Press, Orlando 53-69
16. Canham C.D. Different responses to gaps among shade-tolerant tree species. Ecology 70 (1989) 548-550
17. Canham C.D., Denslow J.S., Platt W.J., Runkle J.R., Spies T.A., and White P.S. Light regimes beneath closed canopies and tree-fall gaps in temperate and tropical forests. Can. J. For. Res. 20 (1990) 620-631
18. Canham C.D., Finzi A.C., Pacala S.W., and Burbank D.H. Causes and consequences of resource heterogeneity in forests: interspecific variation in light transmission by canopy trees. Can. J. For. Res. 24 (1994) 337-349
19. Capers R.S., and Chazdon R.L. Rapid assessment of understory light availability in a wet tropical forest. Agric. For. Meteorol. 123 (2004) 177-185
20. Carswell F.E., Richardson S.J., Doherty J.E., Allen R.B., and Wiser S.K. Where do conifers regenerate after selective harvest?: a case study from a New Zealand conifer-angiosperm forest. For. Ecol. Manage. 253 (2007) 138-147
21. Chapin F.S. The mineral nutrition of wild plants. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 11 (1980) 233-260
22. Chazdon R.L., Pearcy R.W., Lee D.W., and Fetcher N. Photosynthetic responses of tropical forest plants to contrasting light environments. In: Mulkey S.S., Chazdon R.L., and Smith A.P. (Eds). Tropical Forest Plant Ecophysiology (1996), Chapman & Hall, New York 5-55
23. Clark D.A., and Clark D.B. Life history diversity of canopy and emergent trees in a neotropical rain forest. Ecol. Monogr. 62 (1992) 315-344
24. Connell J.H. Diversity in tropical rain forests and coral reefs. Science 199 (1978) 1302-1310
25. Coomes D.A., Allen R.B., Bentley W.A., Burrows L.E., Canham C.D., Fagan L., Forsyth D.M., Gaxiola-Alcantar A., Parfitt R.L., Ruscoe W.A., Wardle D.A., Wilson D.J., and Wright E.F. The hare, the tortoise and the crocodile: the ecology of angiosperm dominance, conifer persistence and fern filtering. J. Ecol. 93 (2005) 918-935
26. Coomes D.A., Allen R.B., Forsyth D.M., and Lee W.G. Factors preventing the recovery of New Zealand forests following control of invasive deer. Conserv. Biol. 17 (2003) 450-459
27. Coomes D.A., and Grubb P.J. Impacts of root competition in forests and woodlands: a theoretical framework and review of experiments. Ecol. Monogr. 70 (2000) 171-207
28. Cornelissen J.H.C., Diez P.C., and Hunt R. Seedling growth, allocation and leaf attributes in a wide range of woody plant species and types. J. Ecol. 84 (1996) 755-765
29. Cornett M.W., Puettmann K.J., and Reich P.B. Canopy type, forest floor, predation, and competition influence conifer seedling emergence and early survival in two Minnesota conifer-deciduous forests. Can. J. For. Res. 28 (1998) 196-205
30. Craine J.M., and Reich P.B. Leaf-level light compensation points in shade-tolerant woody seedlings. New Phytol. 166 (2005) 710-713
31. Denslow J.S. Tropical rainforest gaps and tree species diversity. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 18 (1987) 431-451
32. Deregibus V.A., Sanchez R.A., and Casal J.J. Effects of light quality on tiller production in Lolium spp. Plant Physiol. 72 (1983) 900-902
33. Deregibus V.A., Sanchez R.A., Casal J.J., and Trlica M.J. Tillering responses to enrichment of red light beneath the canopy in a humid natural grassland. J. Appl. Ecol. 22 (1985) 199-206
34. Dolling A.H.U. Interference of bracken (Pteridium aquilinum L. Kuhn) with Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies L. Karst) seedling establishment. For. Ecol. Manage. 88 (1996) 227-235
35. Eber W. Über das Lichtklima von Wäldern bei Göttingen und seinen Einfluss auf die Bodenvegetation. Scripta Geobot. 3 (1972) 1-150
36. Elliott K.J., and White A.S. Competitive effects of various grasses and forbs on Ponderosa pine seedlings. For. Sci. 33 (1987) 356-366
37. Endler J.A. The color of light in forests and its implications. Ecol. Monogr. 63 (1993) 1-27
38. Enright N.J., Ogden J., and Rigg L.S. Dynamics of forests with Araucariaceae in the western Pacific. J. Veg. Sci. 10 (1999) 793-804
39. Everard D.A. The effects of fire on the Podocarpus latifolius forests of the Royal Natal National Park, Natal Drakensburg. S. Afr. J. Bot. 52 (1986) 60-66
40. Everard D.A., Midgley J.J., and van Wyk G.F. Dynamics of some forests in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, based on ordinations and size-class distributions. S. Afr. J. Bot. 61 (1995) 283-292
41. Everard D.A., van Wyk G.F., and Midgley J.J. Disturbance and the diversity of forests in Natal, South Africa: lessons for their utilization. In: Huntley B.J. (Ed). Botanical Diversity in Southern Africa (1994), National Botanical Institute, Pretoria 275-285
42. Fourcade, H.G., 1889. Report on the Natal Forests. Watson, Pietermaritzburg.
43. Geldenhuys C.J. Bergwind fires and the location pattern of forest patches in the southern Cape landscape, South Africa. J. Biogeogr. 21 (1994) 49-62
44. George L.O., and Bazzaz F.A. The fern understory as an ecological filter: emergence and establishment of canopy-tree seedlings. Ecology 80 (1999) 833-845
45. Gibson N., Barker P.C.J., Cullen P.J., and Shapcott A. Conifers of southern Australia. In: Enright N.J., and Hill R.S. (Eds). Ecology of the Southern Conifers (1995), Melbourne University Press, Carlton 223-251
46. Griffith M.M. Folar ontogeny of Podocarpus macrophyllus with special reference to transfusion tissue. Am. J. Bot. 44 (1957) 705-715
47. Grubb P. The maintenance of species richness in plant communities: the importance of the regeneration niche. Biol. Rev. 52 (1977) 107-145
48. Gutierrez A.G., Armesto J.J., and Aravena J.C. Disturbance and regeneration dynamics of an old-growth North Patagonian rain forest in Chiloé Island, Chile. J. Ecol. 92 (2004) 598-608
49. Hewitt E. Sand and Water Culture Methods used in the Study of Plant Nutrition (1966), Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, UK
50. Hill J.L., and Curran P.J. Species composition in fragmented forests: conservation implications of changing forest area. Appl. Geogr. 21 (2001) 157-174
51. Hill J.L., and Curran P.J. Area, shape and isolation of tropical forest fragments: effects on tree species diversity and implications for conservation. J. Biogeogr. 30 (2003) 1391-1403
52. Höglind F.-L. Growing point dynamics and spring growth of white clover in a mixed sward and the effects of nitrogen application. Grass Forage Sci. 53 (1998) 338-345
53. Hunziker U., and Brang P. Microsite patterns of conifer seedling establishment and growth in a mixed stand in the southern Alps. For. Ecol. Manage. 210 (2005) 67-79
54. Husheer S.W., Coomes D.A., and Robertson A.W. Long-term influences of introduced deer on the composition and structure of New Zealand Nothofagus forests. For. Ecol. Manage. 181 (2003) 99-117
55. Hutchins, D.E., 1905. The indigenous forests of South Africa. Addresses and papers read at the joint meeting of the British and South African associations for the advancement of Science, 1905, South Africa. British Association for the Advancement of Science Meeting 75th 1905. South Africa, Cape Town, pp. 319-335.
56. Johnsen T.N. One-seed Juniper invasion of northern Arizona grasslands. Ecol. Monogr. 32 (1962) 187-207
57. Kershaw A.P., and McGlone M.S. The quaternary history of the Southern Conifers. In: Enright N.J., and Hill R.S. (Eds). Ecology of the Southern Conifers (1995), Melbourne University Press, Carlton 30-63
58. Kobe R.K. Light gradient partitioning among tropical tree species through differential seedling mortality and growth. Ecology 80 (1999) 187-201
59. Kobe R.K., Pacala S.W., Silander Jr. J.A., and Canham C.D. Juvenile tree survivorship as a component of shade tolerance. Ecol. Appl. 5 (1995) 517-532
60. Kullman L. Climatically induced regeneration patterns of marginal populations of Pinus sylvestris in northern Sweden. Oecol. Mont. 1 (1992) 5-10
61. Lara, A., 1991. The dynamics and disturbance regimes of Fitzroya cupressoides forests in the south-central Andes of Chile. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. University of Colorado, Boulder, CO.
62. Lawes M.J., Adie H., Eeley H.A.C., Kotze D.J., and Wethered R. An Assessment of the Forests of the Maloti-Drakensberg Transfrontier Bioregion, with reference to Important Ecosystem Processes (2007), Forest Biodiversity Research Unit, School of Biological and Conservation Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg
63. Lawes M.J., Griffiths M.E., and Boudreau S. Colonial logging and recent subsistence harvesting affect the composition and physiognomy of a podocarp dominated Afrotemperate forest. For. Ecol. Manage. 247 (2007) 48-60
64. Lawes M.J., Midgley J.J., Boudreau S., and Griffiths M.E. Lack of disturbance as an explanation for the additive basal area phenomenon in a stratified Afrotemperate forest. Aust. Ecol. 31 (2006) 471-477
65. Lee D.W. Canopy dynamics and light climates in a tropical moist deciduous forest in India. J. Trop. Ecol. 5 (1989) 65-79
66. Lewis S.L., and Tanner E.V.J. Effects of above- and below ground competition on growth and survival of rain forest tree seedlings. Ecology 81 (2000) 2525-2538
67. Lusk C.H. Stand dynamics of the shade-tolerant conifers Podocarpus nubigena and Saxegothaea conspicua in Chilean temperate rain forest. J. Veg. Sci. 7 (1996) 549-558
68. Lusk C.H., Duncan R.P., and Bellingham P.J. Light environments occupied by conifer and angiosperm seedlings in a New Zealand podocarp-broadleaved forest. N. Z. J. Ecol. 33 (2009) 83-89
69. Lusk C.H., and Ogden J. Age structure and dynamics of a podocarp-broadleaf forest in Tongariro National Park, New Zealand. J. Ecol. 80 (1992) 379-393
70. Lusk C.H., Reich P.B., Montgomery R.A., Ackerly D.D., and Cavender-Bares J. Why are evergreen leaves so contrary about shade?. Trends Ecol. Evol. 23 (2008) 299-303
71. Lusk C.H., and Smith B. Life history differences and tree species coexistence in an old-growth New Zealand rain forest. Ecology 79 (1998) 795-806
72. Lusk C.H., and Warton D.I. Global meta-analysis shows that relationships of leaf mass per area with species shade tolerance depend on leaf habit and ontogeny. New Phytol. 176 (2007) 764-774
73. Lusk C.H., Wright I., and Reich P.B. Photosynthetic differences contribute to competitive advantage of evergreen angiosperm trees over evergreen conifers in productive habitats. New Phytol. 160 (2003) 329-336
74. Madany M.H., and West N.E. Livestock grazing-fire regime interactions within montane forests of Zion National Park, Utah. Ecology 64 (1983) 661-667
75. McCracken D.P. Dependence, destruction and development. A history of indigenous timber use in South Africa. In: Lawes M.J., Eeley H.A.C., Shackelton C.M., and Geach B.G.S. (Eds). Indigenous Forests and Woodlands in South Africa (2004), University of KwaZulu-Natal Press, Pietermaritzburg 277-308
76. McDonald D., and Norton D.A. Light environments in temperate New Zealand podocarp rainforests. N. Z. J. Ecol. 16 (1992) 15-22
77. Midgley J.J., Bond W.J., and Geldenhuys C.J. The ecology of southern African conifers. In: Enright N.J., and Hill R.S. (Eds). Ecology of the Southern Conifers (1995), Melbourne University Press, Carlton 64-80
78. Midgley J.J., Everard D.A., and van Wyk G. Relative lack of regeneration of shade-intolerant canopy species in some South African forests. S. Afr. J. Sci. 91 (1995) 7-8
79. Midgley J.J., Seydack A., Reynell D., and McKelly D. Fine-grain pattern in Southern Cape plateau forests. J. Veg. Sci. 1 (1990) 539-546
80. Midgley J.J., Van Wyk G.R., and Everard D.A. Leaf attributes of South African forest species. Afr. J. Ecol. 33 (1995) 160-168
81. Moll E.J. The current status of mistbelt mixed Podocarpus forest in Natal. Bothalia 10 (1972) 595-598
82. Montgomery R.A., and Chazdon R.L. Light gradient partitioning by tropical tree seedlings in the absence of canopy gaps. Oecologia 131 (2002) 165-174
83. Odendaal P.B. Feeding habits and nutrition of bushbuck in the Knysna forests during winter. S. Afr. J. Wildl. Res. 13 (1983) 27-31
84. Ogden J. An introduction to plant demography with special reference to New Zealand trees. N. Z. J. Bot. 23 (1985) 751-772
85. Ogden J., Fordham R.A., Horrocks M., Pilkington S., and Serra R.G. Long-term dynamics of the long-lived conifer Libocedrus bidwillii after a volcanic eruption 2000 years ago. J. Veg. Sci. 16 (2005) 321-330
86. Ogden J., and Stewart G.H. Community dynamics of the New Zealand conifers. In: Enright N.J., and Hill R.S. (Eds). Ecology of the Southern Conifers (1995), Melbourne University Press, Carlton 81-119
87. Ogden J., Wardle G.M., and Ahmed M. Population dynamics of the emergent conifer Agathis australis (D. Don) Lindl. (kauri) in New Zealand II. Seedling population sizes and gap-phase regeneration. N. Z. J. Bot. 25 (1987) 231-242
88. Osunkjoya O.O., Ash J.E., Hopkins M.S., and Graham A.W. Factors affecting survival of tree seedlings in north Queensland rainforests. Oecologia 91 (1992) 569-578
89. Pacala S.W., Canham C.D., Silander J.A., and Kobe R.K. Sapling growth as a function of resources in a north temperate forest. Can. J. For. Res. 24 (1994) 2172-2183
90. Platt K.H., Allen R.B., Coomes D.A., and Wiser S.K. Mountain beech seedling responses to removal of below-ground competition and fertiliser addition. N. Z. J. Ecol. 28 (2004) 289-293
91. Poorter H., and Remkes C. Leaf area ratio and net assimilation rate of 24 wild species differing in relative growth rate. Oecologia 83 (1990) 553-559
92. Poorter L., and Arets E.J.M.M. Light environment and tree strategies in a Bolivian tropical moist forest: an evaluation of the light partitioning hypothesis. Plant Ecol. 166 (2003) 295-306
93. Putz F.E., and Canham C.D. Mechanisms of arrested succession in shrublands: root and shoot competition between shrubs and tree seedlings. For. Ecol. Manage. 49 (1992) 267-275
94. Read J., and Hill R.S. The dynamics of some rainforest associations in Tasmania. J. Ecol. 76 (1988) 558-584
95. Reich P.B., Wright I.J., Cavender-Bares J., Craine J.M., Oleksyn J., Westoby M., and Walters M.B. The evolution of plant functional variation: traits, spectra, and strategies. Int. J. Plant Sci. 164 (2003) S143-S164
96. Richardson S.J., Peltzer D.A., Allen R.B., McGlone M.S., and Parfitt R.L. Rapid development of phosphorus limitation in temperate rainforest along the Franz Josef soil chronosequence. Oecologia 139 (2004) 267-276
97. Royo A.A., and Carson W.P. On the formation of dense understory layers in forests worldwide: consequences and implications for forest dynamics, biodiversity, and succession. Can. J. For. Res. 36 (2006) 1345-1362
98. Runkle J.R. Gap regeneration in some old-growth forests of the eastern United States. Ecology 62 (1981) 1041-1051
99. Schulze, R.E., Maharaj, M., Lynch, S.D., Howe, B.J., Melvill-Thomson, B., 1997. South African Atlas of Agrohydrology and Climatology. Water Research Commission Report Number: TT 82/96. Pretoria.
100. Scotcher, J.S.B., 1982. Interrelations of vegetation and eland (Taurotragus oryx Pallas) in Giant's Castle Game Reserve, Natal. Ph.D. Thesis. University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg.
101. Smith H., and Whitelam G.C. The shade avoidance syndrome: multiple responses mediated by multiple phytochromes. Plant Cell Environ. 20 (1997) 840-844
102. Stewart G.H., and Rose A.B. Conifer regeneration failure in New Zealand: dynamics of montane Libocedrus bidwillii stands. Plant Ecol. 79 (1989) 41-49
103. Takahashi K. Regeneration and coexistence of two subalpine conifer species in relation to dwarf bamboo in the understorey. J. Veg. Sci. 8 (1997) 529-536
104. Tanner E.V.J., Teo V.K., Coomes D.A., and Midgley J.J. Pair-wise competition-trials amongst seedlings of ten dipterocarp species; the role of initial height, growth rate and leaf attributes. J. Trop. Ecol. 21 (2005) 317-328
105. Turnbull M.H., and Yates D.J. Seasonal variation in the red far-red ratio and photon flux-density in an Australian subtropical rain-forest. Agric. For. Meteorol. 64 (1993) 111-127
106. Uys, R.G., 2006. Fire effects on the fauna and flora of the Maloti-Drakensberg Bioregion: a review. Maloti-Drakensberg Transfrontier Project, Howick.
107. van Wilgen B.W., Higgins K.B., and Bellstedt D.U. The role of vegetation structure and fuel chemistry in excluding fire from forest patches in the fire-prone fynbos shrublands of South Africa. J. Ecol. 78 (1990) 210-222
108. Veblen T.T., Burns B.R., Kitzberger A.L., and Villalba R. The ecology of the conifers of southern South America. In: Enright N.J., and Hill R.S. (Eds). Ecology of the Southern Conifers (1995), Melbourne University Press, Carlton 120-155
109. Veblen T.T., Donoso Z.C., Schlegel F.M., and Escobar R.B. Forest dynamics in south-central Chile. J. Biogeogr. 8 (1981) 211-247
110. Veblen T.T., and Lorenz D.C. Post-fire stand development of Austrocedrus-Nothofagus forests in northern Patagonia. Plant Ecol. 71 (1987) 113-126
111. Veblen T.T., and Stewart G. Comparison of forest structure and regeneration on Bench and Stewart Islands, New Zealand. N. Z. J. Ecol. 3 (1980) 50-68
112. Veblen T.T., and Stewart G.H. On the conifer regeneration gap in New Zealand: the dynamics of Libocedrus bidwillii stands on South Island. J. Ecol. 70 (1982) 413-436
113. Walters M.B., and Reich P.B. Low-light carbon balance and shade tolerance in the seedlings of woody plants: do winter deciduous and broad-leaved evergreen species differ?. New Phytol. 143 (1999) 143-154
114. 2 exchange: a component of variation in shade tolerance among cold temperate tree seedlings. Funct. Ecol. 14 (2000) 155-165
115. Wan C., and Sosebee R.E. Tillering responses to red:far-red light ratio during different phenological stages in Eragrostis curvula. Environ. Exp. Bot. 40 (1998) 247-254
116. Watson L.H., and Cameron M.J. The influence of fire on a southern Cape mountain forest. S. Afr. For. J. 191 (2001) 39-42
117. Wells A., Duncan R.P., and Stewart G.H. Forest dynamics in Westland, New Zealand: the importance of large, infrequent earthquake-induced disturbance. J. Ecol. 89 (2001) 1006-1018
118. West A.G., Midgley J.J., and Bond W.J. Regeneration failure and the potential importance of human disturbance in a subtropical forest. Appl. Veg. Sci. 3 (2000) 223-232
119. Westoby M., Falster D.S., Moles A.T., Vesk P.A., and Wright I.J. Plant ecological strategies: some leading dimensions of variation between species. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 33 (2002) 125-159
120. Whitmore T.C. Canopy gaps and the two major groups of forest trees. Ecology 70 (1989) 536-538
121. Wiegmann S.M., and Waller D.M. Fifty years of change in northern upland forest understories: identity and traits of "winner" and "loser" plant species. Biol. Conserv. 129 (2006) 109-123
122. Zackrisson O., Nilsson M.-C., Steijlen I., and Hornberg G. Regeneration pulses and climate-vegetation interactions in nonpyrogenic boreal Scots pine stands. J. Ecol. 83 (1995) 469-483
123. Zackrisson O., Nilsson M.C., Dahlberg A., and Jaderlund A. Interference mechanisms in conifer-Ericaceae-feathermoss communities. Oikos 78 (1997) 209-220
124. Zavala M.A., Angulo O., Bravo de la Parra R., and López-Marcos J.C. An analytical model of stand dynamics as a function of tree growth, mortality and recruitment: the shade tolerance-stand structure hypothesis revisited. J. Theor. Biol. 244 (2007) 440-450