A critical discussion of the rates of progression and causes of optic nerve damage in glaucoma: International glaucoma think tank II: July 25-26, 2008, Florence, Italy

Journal of Glaucoma

Volumn 18, Issue 6 SUPPL. 1, 2009, Pages

  Caprioli, Joseph ^a   Zeyen, Thierry ^b  

^a JULES STEIN EYE INSTITUTE   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF LEUVEN   (Belgium)

Author keywords

Clinical trial; Disease progression; Excitotoxicity; Neuroprotection; Retinal ganglion cell; Visual field

Indexed keywords

BASIC FIBROBLAST GROWTH FACTOR; BRAIN DERIVED NEUROTROPHIC FACTOR; BRIMONIDINE; CILIARY NEUROTROPHIC FACTOR; CYCLIC AMP; MEMANTINE; MITOCHONDRIAL DNA; NEUROTROPHIC FACTOR; ONCOMODULIN; TIMOLOL;

AGING; BINOCULAR VISION; CELL DEATH; CELL INTERACTION; CLINICAL PRACTICE; CLINICAL TRIAL; CONFERENCE PAPER; DISEASE COURSE; DOSE RESPONSE; DRUG DOSE COMPARISON; DRUG MECHANISM; EARLY DIAGNOSIS; EXCITOTOXICITY; GENETIC SCREENING; GLAUCOMA; GLIA CELL; HUMAN; INTRAOCULAR HYPERTENSION; INTRAOCULAR PRESSURE; NERVE CELL; NERVE REGENERATION; NEUROBIOLOGY; NEUROPROTECTION; NONHUMAN; OPEN ANGLE GLAUCOMA; OPTIC NERVE LESION; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROPHYLAXIS; QUALITY OF LIFE; RETINA GANGLION CELL; RETINA ISCHEMIA; VISUAL FIELD DEFECT;

DISEASE PROGRESSION; GLAUCOMA; HUMANS; NERVE FIBERS; OPTIC NERVE DISEASES; RETINAL GANGLION CELLS; RISK FACTORS; VISUAL FIELDS;

EID: 70349141320     PISSN: 10570829     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/IJG.0b013e3181aff461     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (122)

1. Caprioli J, Garway-Heath DF. A critical reevaluation of current glaucoma management: International Glaucoma Think Tank, July 27-29, 2006, Taormina, Sicily. Ophthalmology. 2007;114(11 suppl):S1-41.
2. Lee SJ, Lindquist K, Segal MR, et al. Development and validation of a prognostic index for 4-year mortality in older adults. JAMA. 2006;295:801-808.
3. Altangerel U, Spaeth GL, Steinmann WC. Assessment of function related to vision (AFREV). Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 2006;13:67-80.
4. Katz LJ, Spaeth GL, Cantor LB, et al. Reversible optic disk cupping and visual field improvement in adults with glaucoma. Am J Ophthalmol. 1989;107:485-492.
5. Albon J, Purslow PP, Karwatowski WS, et al. Age related compliance of the lamina cribrosa in human eyes. Br J Ophthalmol. 2000;84:318-323.
6. Ventura LM, Porciatti V. Restoration of retinal ganglion cell function in early glaucoma after intraocular pressure reduction: a pilot study. Ophthalmology. 2005;112:20-27.
7. Getzen TE. Population aging and the growth of health expenditures. J Gerontol. 1992;47:S98-104.
8. Burr JM, Mowatt G, Hernandez R, et al. The clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of screening for open angle glaucoma: a systematic review and economic evaluation. Health Technol Assess. 2007;11:iii-ix, 1.
9. European Glaucoma Society. Terminology and guidelines for glaucoma. 3rd ed. Savona, Italy: Editrice Dogma S.r.l.; 2008.
10. Grødum K, Heijl A, Bengtsson B. A comparison of glaucoma patients identified through mass screening and in routine clinical practice. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2002;80: 627-631.
11. Mukesh BN, McCarty CA, Rait JL, et al. Five-year incidence of open-angle glaucoma: the visual impairment project. Ophthalmology. 2002;109:1047-1051.
12. Vaahtoranta-Lehtonen H, Tuulonen A, Aronen P, et al. Cost effectiveness and cost utility of an organized screening programme for glaucoma. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2007;85: 508-518.
13. Abramoff MD, Niemeijer M, Suttorp-Schulten MS, et al. Evaluation of a system for automatic detection of diabetic retinopathy from color fundus photographs in a large population of patients with diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2008;31:193-198.
14. Abramoff MD, Alward WL, Greenlee EC, et al. Automated segmentation of the optic disc from stereo color photographs using physiologically plausible features. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2007;48:1665-1673.
15. Tuulonen A, Airaksinen PJ, Erola E, et al. The Finnish evidence-based guideline for open-angle glaucoma. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2003;81:3-18.
16. AGIS Investigators. The Advanced Glaucoma Intervention Study (AGIS): 1. Study design and methods and baseline characteristics of study patients. Control Clin Trials. 1994;15: 299-325.
17. Airaksinen PJ, Tuulonen A, Alanko HI. Rate and pattern of neuroretinal rim area decrease in ocular hypertension and glaucoma. Arch Ophthalmol. 1992;110:206-210.
18. Moya FJ, Brigatti L, Caprioli J. Effect of aging on optic nerve appearance: a longitudinal study. Br J Ophthalmol. 1999;83: 567-572.
19. Laemmer R, Schroeder S, Martus P, et al. Quantification of neuroretinal rim loss using digital planimetry in long-term follow-up of normals and patients with ocular hypertension. J Glaucoma. 2007;16:430-436.
20. Garway-Heath DF, Wollstein G, Hitchings RA. Aging changes of the optic nerve head in relation to open angle glaucoma. Br J Ophthalmol. 1997;81:840-845.
21. Strouthidis NG, Scott A, Peter NM, et al. Optic disc and visual field progression in ocular hypertensive subjects: detection rates, specificity, and agreement. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2006;47:2904-2910.
22. Artes PH, Chauhan BC. Longitudinal changes in the visual field and optic disc in glaucoma. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2005;24: 333-354.
23. Bengtsson B, Heijl A. A visual field index for calculation of glaucoma rate of progression. Am J Ophthalmol. 2008;145: 343-353.
24. Caprioli J. The importance of rates in glaucoma. Am J Ophthalmol. 2008;145:191-192.
25. Kotecha A, consequences of glaucoma for eye-hand co-ordination. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2008;50:203-213.
26. Crabb DP, Viswanathan AC. Integrated visual fields: a new approach to measuring the binocular field of view and visual disability. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2005;243: 210-216.
27. Owen VM, Crabb DP, White ET, et al. Glaucoma and fitness to drive: using binocular visual fields to predict a milestone to blindness. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2008;49:2449-2455.
28. Gardiner SK, Crabb DP. Frequency of testing for detecting visual field progression. Br J Ophthalmol. 2002;86:560-564.
29. Chauhan BC, Garway-Heath DF, Goni FJ, et al. Practical recommendations for measuring rates of visual field change in glaucoma. Br J Ophthalmol. 2008;92:569-573.
30. Nouri-Mahdavi K, Hoffman D, Ralli M, et al. Comparison of methods to predict visual field progression in glaucoma. Arch Ophthalmol. 2007;125:1176-1181.
31. Friedman DS, Wilson MR, Liebmann JM, et al. An evidence-based assessment of risk factors for the progression of ocular hypertension and glaucoma. Am J Ophthalmol. 2004;138 (3 suppl):S19-S31.
32. Leske MC, Heijl A, Hyman L, et al. Predictors of long-term progression in the early manifest glaucoma trial. Ophthalmology. 2007;114:1965-1972.
33. Gordon MO, Beiser JA, Brandt JD, et al. The Ocular Hypertension Treatment Study: baseline factors that predict the onset of primary open-angle glaucoma. Arch Ophthalmol. 2002;120:714-720.
34. Medeiros FA, Weinreb RN, Sample PA, et al. Validation of a predictive model to estimate the risk of conversion from ocular hypertension to glaucoma. Arch Ophthalmol 2005; 123(10):1351-1360.
35. Collaborative Normal-Tension Glaucoma Study Group. Comparison of glaucomatous progression between untreated patients with normal-tension glaucoma and patients with therapeutically reduced intraocular pressures. Am J Ophthalmol. 1998;126:487-497.
36. McNaught AI, Crabb DP, Fitzke FW, et al. Modelling series of visual fields to detect progression in normal-tension glaucoma. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 1995;233: 750-755.
37. Kerrigan-Baumrind LA, Quigley HA, Pease ME, et al. Number of ganglion cells in glaucoma eyes compared with threshold visual field tests in the same persons. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2000;41:741-748.
38. Harwerth RS, Quigley HA. Visual field defects and retinal ganglion cell losses in patients with glaucoma. Arch Ophthalmol. 2006;124:853-859.
39. Kerrigan LA, Zack DJ, Quigley HA, et al. TUNEL-positive ganglion cells in human primary open-angle glaucoma. Arch Ophthalmol. 1997;115:1031-1035.
40. Weinreb RN, Friedman DS, Fechtner RD, et al. Risk assessment in the management of patients with ocular hypertension. Am J Ophthalmol. 2004;138:458-467.
41. Kim SH, Munemasa Y, Kwong JM, et al. Activation of autophagy in retinal ganglion cells. J Neurosci Res. 2008;86: 2943-2951.
42. Caprioli J. Glaucoma is a neuronal disease. Eye. 2007;21: S6-S10.
43. Rami A, Bechmann I, Stehle JH. Exploiting endogenous anti-apoptotic proteins for novel therapeutic strategies in cerebral ischemia. Prog Neurobiol. 2008;85:273-296.
44. Tezel G, Yang X. Caspase-independent component of retinal ganglion cell death, in vitro. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2004;45:4049-4059.
45. Leung CK, Lindsey JD, Crowston J, et al. Longitudinal profile of retinal ganglion cell degeneration after optic nerve crush with blue-light confocal scanning laser ophthalmoscopy. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2008;49:4898-4902.
46. Yang Z, Quigley HA, Pease ME, et al. Changes in gene expression in experimental glaucoma and optic nerve transection: the equilibrium between protective and detri- N, Melmoth D, et al. The functional mental mechanisms. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2007;48: 5539-5548.
47. Levkovitch-Verbin H, Quigley HA, Martin KR, et al. A model to study differences between primary and secondary degeneration of retinal ganglion cells in rats by partial optic nerve transection. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2003;44: 3388-3393.
48. Golubnitschaja O, Flammer J. What are the biomarkers for glaucoma? Surv Ophthalmol. 2007;52(suppl 2):S155-S161.
49. Law SK, Sohn YH, Hoffman D, et al. Optic disk appearance in advanced age-related macular degeneration. Am J Ophthalmol. 2004;138:38-45.
50. Howell GR, Libby RT, Jakobs TC, et al. Axons of retinal ganglion cells are insulted in the optic nerve early in DBA/2J glaucoma. J Cell Biol 2007;179:1523-1537.
51. Buckingham BP, Inman DM, Lambert W, et al. Progressive ganglion cell degeneration precedes neuronal loss in a mouse model of glaucoma. J Neurosci. 2008;28:2735-2744.
52. Morquette JB, Di Polo A. Dendritic and synaptic protection: is it enough to save the retinal ganglion cell body and axon? J Neuroophthalmol. 2008;28:144-154.
53. Alward WL, Fingert JH, Coote MA, et al. Clinical features associated with mutations in the chromosome 1 open-angle glaucoma gene (GLC1A). N Engl J Med. 1998;338:1022-1027.
54. Hewitt A. Myocilin variant information: Gln368X. myocilin com, 2007; Available at: http://myocilin.com/variantinfo.php?Id=44. Accessed October 17, 2008.
55. Fingert JH, Heon E, Liebmann JM, et al. Analysis of myocilin mutations in 1703 glaucoma patients from five different populations. Hum Mol Genet. 1999;8:899-905.
56. Fingert JH, Alward WL, Kwon YH, et al. LOXL1 mutations are associated with exfoliation syndrome in patients from the midwestern United States. Am J Ophthalmol. 2007;144: 974-975.
57. Abu-Amero KK, Morales J, Bosley TM. Mitochondrial abnormalities in patients with primary open-angle glaucoma. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2006;47:2533-2541.
58. He Y, Leung KW, Zhang YH, et al. Mitochondrial complex I defect induces ROS release and degeneration in trabecular meshwork cells of POAG patients: protection by antiox-idants. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2008;49:1447-1458.
59. So KF, Aguayo AJ. Lengthy regrowth of cut axons from ganglion cells after peripheral nerve transplantation into the retina of adult rats. Brain Res. 1985;328:349-354.
60. Villegas-Perez MP, Vidal-Sanz M, Bray GM, et al. Influences of peripheral nerve grafts on the survival and regrowth of axotomized retinal ganglion cells in adult rats. J Neurosci. 1988;8:265-280.
61. Carter DA, Bray GM, Aguayo AJ. Regenerated retinal ganglion cell axons can form well-differentiated synapses in the superior colliculus of adult hamsters. J Neurosci 1989;9:4042-4050.
62. Keirstead SA, Vidal-Sanz M, Rasminsky M, et al. Responses to light of retinal neurons regenerating axons into peripheral nerve grafts in the rat. Brain Res. 1985;359:402-406. (Pubitemid 16147571)
63. Jacobs WB, Fehlings MG. The molecular basis of neural regeneration. Neurosurgery. 2003;53:943-948.
64. Chen MS, Huber AB, van der Haar ME, et al. Nogo-A is a myelin-associated neurite outgrowth inhibitor and an antigen for monoclonal antibody IN-1. Nature. 2000;403: 434-439.
65. GrandPre T, Nakamura F, Vartanian T, et al. Identification of the Nogo inhibitor of axon regeneration as a Reticulon protein. Nature. 2000;403:439-444.
66. McKerracher L, David S, Jackson DL, et al. Identification of myelin-associated glycoprotein as a major myelin-derived inhibitor of neurite growth. Neuron. 1994;13:805-811.
67. Mukhopadhyay G, Doherty P, Walsh FS, et al. A novel role for myelin-associated glycoprotein as an inhibitor of axonal regeneration. Neuron. 1994;13:757-767.
68. Wang KC, Koprivica V, Kim JA, et al. Oligodendrocyte-myelin glycoprotein is a Nogo receptor ligand that inhibits neurite outgrowth. Nature. 2002;417:941-944.
69. McGee AW, Strittmatter SM. The Nogo-66 receptor: focusing myelin inhibition of axon regeneration. Trends Neurosci. 2003;26:193-198.
70. Fischer D, He Z, Benowitz LI. Counteracting the Nogo receptor enhances optic nerve regeneration if retinal ganglion cells are in an active growth state|. J Neurosci. 2004;24:1646-1651.
71. Bertrand J, Di PA, McKerracher L. Enhanced survival and regeneration of axotomized retinal neurons by repeated delivery of cell-permeable C3-like Rho antagonists. Neurobiol Dis. 2007;25:65-72.
72. Sapieha PS, Peltier M, Rendahl KG, et al. Fibroblast growth factor-2 gene delivery stimulates axon growth by adult retinal ganglion cells after acute optic nerve injury. Mol Cell Neurosci. 2003;24:656-672.
73. Muller A, Hauk TG, Fischer D. Astrocyte-derived CNTF switches mature RGCs to a regenerative state following inflammatory stimulation. Brain. 2007;130(Pt 12):3308-3320.
74. Leon S, Yin Y, Nguyen J, et al. Lens injury stimulates axon regeneration in the mature rat optic nerve. J Neurosci. 2000; 20:4615-4626.
75. Yin Y, Henzl MT, Lorber B, et al. Oncomodulin is a macrophage-derived signal for axon regeneration in retinal ganglion cells. Nat Neurosci 2006;9:843-852.
76. Hauk TG, Muller A, Lee J, et al. Neuroprotective and axon growth promoting effects of intraocular inflammation do not depend on oncomodulin or the presence of large numbers of activated macrophages. Exp Neurol. 2008;209:469-482.
77. Goldberg JL, Klassen MP, Hua Y, et al. Amacrine-signaled loss of intrinsic axon growth ability by retinal ganglion cells. Science. 2002;296:1860-1864.
78. Park KH, Cozier F, Ong OC, et al. Induction of heat shock protein 72 protects retinal ganglion cells in a rat glaucoma model. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2001;42:1522-1530.
79. Yücel YH, Zhang Q, Gupta N, et al. Loss of neurons in magnocellular and parvocellular layers of the lateral geniculate nucleus in glaucoma. Arch Ophthalmol 2000;118:378-384.
80. Yücel YH, Zhang Q, Weinreb RN, et al. Atrophy of relay neurons in magno- and parvocellular layers in the lateral geniculate nucleus in experimental glaucoma. Invest Ophthal-mol Vis Sci. 2001;42:3216-3222.
81. Gupta N, Ly T, Zhang Q, et al. Chronic ocular hypertension induces dendrite pathology in the lateral geniculate nucleus of the brain. Exp Eye Res. 2007;84:176-184.
82. Yücel YH, Gupta N, Zhang Q, et al. Memantine protects neurons from shrinkage in the lateral geniculate nucleus in experimental glaucoma. Arch Ophthalmol. 2006;124:217-225.
83. Gupta N, Ang LC, Noel de TL, et al. Human glaucoma and neural degeneration in intracranial optic nerve, lateral geniculate nucleus, and visual cortex. Br J Ophthalmol. 2006; 90:674-678.
84. Gupta N, Greenberg G, de Tilly LN, et al. Atrophy of the lateral geniculate nucleus in human glaucoma by magnetic resonance imaging. Br J Ophthalmol. 2008;93:56-60.
85. Pearson HE, Thompson TP. Atrophy and degeneration of ganglion cells in central retina following loss of postsynaptic target neurons in the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus of the adult cat. Exp Neurol. 1993;119:113-119.
86. Duncan RO, Sample PA, Weinreb RN, et al. Retinotopic organization of primary visual cortex in glaucoma: Comparing fMRI measurements of cortical function with visual field loss. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2007;26:38-56.
87. Yazdani S, Tousi A, Pakravan M, et al. Sensorineural hearing loss in pseudoexfoliation syndrome. Ophthalmology. 2008; 115:425-429.
88. Stevens B, Allen NJ, Vazquez LE, et al. The classical complement cascade mediates CNS synapse elimination. Cell. 2007;131:1164-1178.
89. Kuehn MH, Kim CY, Ostojic J, et al. Retinal synthesis and deposition of complement components induced by ocular hypertension. Exp Eye Res. 2006;83:620-628.
90. Liu M, Georgiou A, Guo L, et al. Dendritic pathology in the superior colliculus in a rat model of experimental glaucoma. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2008;49:E-Abstract 5199.
91. Gupta N. Ocular blood flow on the move. Can J Ophthalmol. 2008;43:279-280.
92. Hayreh SS. The blood supply of the optic nerve head and the evaluation of it-myth and reality. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2001;20:563-593.
93. Choi J, Kim KH, Jeong J, et al. Circadian fluctuation of mean ocular perfusion pressure is a consistent risk factor for normal-tension glaucoma. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2007;48:104-111.
94. Leske MC, Wu SY, Hennis A, et al. Risk factors for incident open-angle glaucoma: the Barbados Eye Studies. Ophthalmology. 2008;115:85-93.
95. Tielsch JM, Katz J, Sommer A, et al. Hypertension, perfusion pressure, and primary open-angle glaucoma. A population-based assessment. Arch Ophthalmol. 1995;113:216-221.
96. Liang Y, Wang L, Cull G, et al. Systemic blood pressure determines the magnitude of IOP-induced blood flow change in the optic nerve head of non-human primate. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2008;49:E-Abstract 3265.
97. Ju KR, Kim HS, Kim JH, et al. Retinal glial cell responses and Fas/FasL activation in rats with chronic ocular hypertension. Brain Res. 2006;1122:209-221.
98. Hernandez MR. The optic nerve head in glaucoma: role of astrocytes in tissue remodeling. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2000;19:297-321.
99. Shi Z, Rudzinski M, Meerovitch K, et al. alpha 2 macro-globulin is a mediator of retinal ganglion cell death in glaucoma. J Biol Chem. 2008;283:29156-29165.
100. Allergan Inc. Allergan Reports Fourth Quarter Operating Results. Irvine, CA: Allergan, Inc.; 2008.
101. Kusari J, Zhou S, Padillo E, et al. Effect of memantine on neuroretinal function and retinal vascular changes of strepto-zotocin-induced diabetic rats. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2007;48:5152-5159.
102. Kusari JX, Zhou X, Padillo EU, et al. Memantine and brimonidine significantly attenuate VEGF protein levels in the retina and vitreous fluid of diabetic rats. Annual Meeting of the American Glaucoma Society (AGS), March 1-4, 2007, San Francisco, CA.
103. Yoles E, Wheeler LA, Schwartz M. Alpha2-adrenoreceptor agonists are neuroprotective in a rat model of optic nerve degeneration. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1999;40:65-73.
104. Ahmed FA, Hegazy K, Chaudhary P, et al. Neuroprotective effect of alpha(2) agonist (brimonidine) on adult rat retinal ganglion cells after increased intraocular pressure. Brain Res. 2001;913:133-139.
105. Hernandez M, Urcola JH, Vecino E. Retinal ganglion cell neuroprotection in a rat model of glaucoma following brimonidine, latanoprost or combined treatments. Exp Eye Res. 2008;86:798-806.
106. Kim HS, Chang YI, Kim JH, et al. Alteration of retinal intrinsic survival signal and effect of alpha2-adrenergic receptor agonist in the retina of the chronic ocular hypertension rat. Vis Neurosci. 2007;24:127-139.
107. Mayor-Torroglosa S, Villa De la, Rodriguez ME, et al. Ischemia results 3 months later in altered ERG, degeneration of inner layers, and deafferented tectum: neuroprotection with brimonidine. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2005;46: 3825-3835.
108. Aviles-Trigueros M, Mayor-Torroglosa S, Garcia-Aviles A, et al. Transient ischemia of the retina results in massive degeneration of the retinotectal projection: long-term neuro-protection with brimonidine. Exp Neurol. 2003;184:767-777.
109. Lafuente Lopez-Herrera MP, Mayor-Torroglosa S, Miralles DI, et al. Transient ischemia of the retina results in altered retrograde axoplasmic transport: neuroprotection with brimonidine. Exp Neurol. 2002;178:243-258.
110. Lafuente MP, Villegas-Perez MP, Mayor S, et al. Neuropro-tective effects of brimonidine against transient ischemia-induced retinal ganglion cell death: a dose response in vivo study. Exp Eye Res. 2002;74:181-189.
111. Lafuente MP, Villegas-Perez MP, Sobrado-Calvo P, et al. Neuroprotective effects of alpha(2)-selective adrenergic agonists against ischemia-induced retinal ganglion cell death. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2001;42:2074-2084.
112. Danylkova NO, Alcala SR, Pomeranz HD, et al. Neuro-protective effects of brimonidine treatment in a rodent model of ischemic optic neuropathy. Exp Eye Res. 2007;84: 293-301.
113. WoldeMussie E, Ruiz G, Wijono M, et al. Neuroprotection of retinal ganglion cells by brimonidine in rats with laser-induced chronic ocular hypertension. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2001;42:2849-2855.
114. Liu W, Yuen EY, Allen PB, et al. Adrenergic modulation of NMDA receptors in prefrontal cortex is differentially regulated by RGS proteins and spinophilin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006;103:18338-18343.
115. Donello JE, Padillo EU, Webster ML, et al. alpha(2)-Adrenoceptor agonists inhibit vitreal glutamate and aspartate accumulation and preserve retinal function after transient ischemia. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2001;296:216-223.
116. Dong CJ, Guo Y, Agey P, et al. Alpha2 adrenergic modulation of NMDA receptor function as a major mechanism of RGC protection in experimental glaucoma and retinal excitotoxicity. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2008;49: 4515-4522.
117. Wilhelm B, Ludtke H, Wilhelm H. Efficacy and tolerability of 0.2% brimonidine tartrate for the treatment of acute non-arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy (NAION): a 3-month, double-masked, randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2006;244:551-558.
118. Greenfield DS, Liebmann JM, Ritch R, et al. Visual field and intraocular pressure asymmetry in the low-pressure glaucoma treatment study. Ophthalmology. 2007;114:460-465.
119. Krupin T, Liebmann JM, Greenfield DS, et al. The Low-pressure Glaucoma Treatment Study (LoGTS) study design and baseline characteristics of enrolled patients. Ophthalmology. 2005;112:376-385.
120. Heijl A, Leske MC, Bengtsson B, et al. Measuring visual field progression in the Early Manifest Glaucoma Trial. Acta Ophthalmol Sscand. 2003;81:286-293.
121. Blodi FC. Blindness and the eye in mythology and religion as represented on postage stamps. Doc Opthalmol 1988;68:401-421.
122. Blodi FC. Some famous persons with visual problems as shown on postage stamps. Doc Ophthalmol. 1991;77: 295-334.