Benevolent and benign? Using environmental justice to investigate waste-related impacts of ecotourism in destination communities

Antipode

Volumn 41, Issue 4, 2009, Pages 741-780

  Meletis, Zoë A ^a   Campbell, Lisa M ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

^b DUKE UNIVERSITY MARINE LABORATORY   (United States)

Author keywords

Costa Rica; Ecotourism; Environmental justice; Marginality; Tortuguero; Tourism impacts

Indexed keywords

CONFERENCE PROCEEDING; ECOTOURISM; ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE; ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT; SOLID WASTE; TOURISM DEVELOPMENT; TOURISM MANAGEMENT; TOURIST DESTINATION;

CENTRAL AMERICA; COSTA RICA; LIMON; TORTUGUERO;

EID: 70149089465     PISSN: 00664812     EISSN: 14678330     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8330.2009.00696.x     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (152)

1. Adeola F O (2000) Cross-national environmental injustice and human rights issues. The American Behavioral Scientist 43(4):686-706
2. Akama J S (1996) Western environmental values and nature-based tourism in Kenya. Tourism Management 17(8):567-574
3. Alexander J and McGregor J (2000) Wildlife and politics: CAMPFIRE in Zimbabwe. Development and Change 31(3): 605-627
4. Alston D and Brown N (1993) Global threats to people of color. In R Bullard (ed) Confronting Environmental Racism. Voices from the Grassroots (pp 179-194). Boston: South End Press
5. Ateljevic I and Doorne S (2005) Dialectics of authentication: Performing "exotic otherness" in a backpacker enclave of Dali, China. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change 3(1):1-17
6. Barrera L M (2003) "Institutions and conservation: Exploring the effects of social difference." Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Cambridge
7. Belkhir J A and Adeola F O (1997) Environmentalism, race, gender & class in global perspective. Race, Gender & Class 5(1):4-12
8. Benford R (2005) The half-life of the environmental justice frame: Innovation, diffusion, and stagnation. In D N Pellow and R J Brulle (eds) Power, Justice and the Environment. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
9. Bhattarai K, Conway D and Shrestha N (2005) Tourism, terrorism and turmoil in Nepal. Annals of Tourism Research 32(3):669-688
10. Boo E (1990) Ecotourism: The Potentials and Pitfalls. Vols 1 and 2. Baltimore, MD: World Wildlife Fund
11. Bradshaw B (2003) Questioning the credibility and capacity of community-based resource management. The Canadian Geographer 47(2):137-150
12. Britton S G (1982) The political economy of tourism in the third world. Annals of Tourism Research 9(3):331-358
13. Brockington D (2004) Community conservation, inequity and injustice: Myths of power in protected area management. Conservation & Society 2(2):411-432
14. Brown K, Turner R K, Hameed H and Bateman I (1997) Environmental carrying capacity and tourism development in the Maldives and Nepal. Environmental Conservation 24(4):316-325
15. Bryant R L and Goodman M K (2004) Consuming narratives: The political ecology of "alternative" consumption. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers NS 29:344-366
16. Bullard R D (1990) Dumping in Dixie: Race, Class and Environmental Quality. Boulder, CO: Westview Press
17. Bullard R D (1993) Confronting Environmental Racism: Voices from the Grassroots. Boston, MA: South End Press
18. Bullard R D (1994) Overcoming racism in environmental decision-making. Environment 36(4):10-20, 39-44
19. Bullard R (2001) Environmental justice in the 21st century: Race still matters. Phylon 49(3/4):151-171
20. Bullard R D and Johnson G S (2000) Environmental justice: Grassroots activism and its impact on public policy decision making. Journal of Social Issues 56(3):555-578
21. Camacho M A (2003) Informe sobre la gestion de manejo desechos solidos en la communidad de Tortuguero. San Jose: Costa Rica
22. Campbell L M (1999) Ecotourism in rural developing communities. Annals of Tourism Research 26(3):534-553
23. Campbell L M (2002a) Conservation narratives and the received wisdom of ecotourism: Case studies from Costa Rica. International Journal of Sustainable Development 5(3):300-325
24. Campbell L M (2002b) Conservation narratives in Costa Rica: Conflict and co-existence. Development and Change 33(1):29-56
25. Campbell L M (2003) Contemporary culture, use, and conservation of sea turtles. In P L Lutz, J A Musick and J Wyneken (eds) The Biology of Sea Turtles (pp 307-338). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press
26. Campbell L M (2007) Local conservation practice and global discourse: A political ecology of sea turtle conservation. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 97(2):313-334
27. Campbell L M, Gray N J and Meletis Z A (2008) Political ecology perspectives on ecotourism to parks and protected areas. In K S Hanna, D A Clark and D S Slocombe (eds) Transforming Parks and Protected Areas: Policy and Governance in a Changing World (pp 200-221). New York and London: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group
28. Čapek S M (1993) The "environmental justice" frame: A conceptual discussion and an application. Social Problems 40(1):5-24
29. Caribbean Conservation Corporation (2003) Tortuguero National Park, Costa Rica, "Region of the turtles". Gainsville, FL. http://www/cccturtle.org/tortNP.htm Accessed 11 August 2006
30. Caribbean Conservation Corporation (2007) Tortuguero National Park, Costa Rica, "Region of the turtles". Gainsville, FL. http://www.cccturtle.org/volunteer-research-programs.php?page=tortNP Accessed 24 June 2006
31. Carrier J G and Macleod D V L (2005) Bursting the bubble: The socio-cultural context of ecotourism. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 11:315-334
32. Carruthers D V (ed) (2008) Environmental Justice in Latin America. Cambridge and London: The MIT Press
33. Cater E (2002) Spread and backwash effects in ecotourism: Implications for sustainable development. International Journal of Sustainable Development 5(3):265-281
34. Cater E (2006) Ecotourism as a Western construct. Journal of Ecotourism 5(1&2):23-39
35. Ceballos-Lascuráin H (1996) Tourism, ecotourism and protected areas: The state of nature-based tourism around the world and guidelines for its development. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN
36. Charnley S (2005) From nature tourism to ecotourism? The case of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania. Human Organization 64(1):75-88
37. Chavis B J (1993) Foreword. In R D Bullard (ed) Confronting Environmental Racism. Voices from the Grassroots (pp 3-5). Boston, MA: South End Press
38. Cock J and Fig D (2002) From colonial to community-based conservation. In D A McDonald (ed) Environmental Justice in South Africa (pp 131-155). Athens, OH: Ohio University Press and Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press
39. Cohen E (1978) The impact of tourism on the physical environment. Annals of Tourism Research April/June: 215-237
40. Colten C E and Dilsaver L M (2005) The hidden landscape of Yosemite National Park. Journal of Cultural Geography 22(2):27-50
41. Comfort S (2002) Struggle in Ogoniland. Ken Saro-Wiwa and the cultural politics of environmental justice. In J E Adamson, M M Evans and R Stein (eds) The Environmental Justice Reader (pp 229-264). Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press
42. De Haro A and Tröeng S (2006) Report on the 2005 Green Turtle Program at Tortuguero, Costa Rica. San Pedro, Costa Rica: Caribbean Conservation Corporation
43. De Oliviera J A P (2005) Tourism as a force for establishing protected areas: The case of Bahia, Brazil. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 13(1):24-49
44. Derraik J G B (2002) The pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: A review. Marine Pollution Bulletin 44:842-852
45. Duffy R (2002) A Trip Too Far. London: Earthscan
46. Edwards N (2002) Radiation, tobacco, and illness in Point Hope, Alaska: Approaches to the "facts" in contaminated communities. In J Adamson, M M Evans and R Stein (eds) The Environmental Justice Reader (pp 105-124). Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press
47. Equations (2008) Call for Action - No more holidays from accountability! Equations statement on World Tourism Day, Bangalore. Email sent to Tourism Geography listserv (IGUST)
48. Evans S (1999) The Green Republic. A Conservation History of Costa Rica. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press
49. Fauzi A and Buchary E A (2002) A socioeconomic perspective of environmental degradation at Kepulauan Seribu marine national park, Indonesia. Coastal Management 30:167-181
50. Fletcher T H (2003) From Love Canal to Environmental Justice. The Politics of Hazardous Waste on the Canada-US Border. Peterborough: Broadview Press
51. Floyd M F and Johnson C Y (2002) Coming to terms with environmental justice in outdoor recreation: A conceptual discussion with research implications. Leisure Sciences 24(1):59-77
52. Garcia R (2002) Equal access to California's beaches. Second National People of Color Environmental Leadership Summit-Summit II. Resource Paper Series. Washington DC: Summit II National Office
53. Geisler C (2003) Your Park, my Poverty. using impact assessment to counter the displacement effects of environmnetal greenlining. In J M Belsky, P R Wilshusen, C L Fortwangler and P C West (eds) Contested Nature: Promoting International Biodiversity with Social Justice in the Twenty-first Century (pp 217-229). New York: State University of New York Press
54. Goldman B A (1996) What is the future of environmental justice? Antipode 28(2):122-141
55. Goodier R (2005) Green sea turtles massacred on Caribbean coast. The Tico Times 23 August. http://www.ticotimes.net/dailyarchive/2005_08/ daily_08_23_05.htm Accessed 15April 2009
56. Goodman M K (2004) Reading fair trade: Political ecology imaginary and the moral economy of fair trade foods. Political Geography 23(7):891-915
57. Gray N (2002) Unpacking the baggage of ecotourism: Nature, science and local participation. The Great Lakes Geographer 9(2):11-21
58. Gregory M R (1999) Plastics and South Pacific Island shores: Environmental implications. Ocean & Coastal Management 42(6):603-615
59. Grossberg R, Treves A and Naughton-Treves L (2003) The incidental ecotourist: Measuring visitor impacts on endangered howler monkeys at a Belizean archaeological site. Environmental Conservation 30(1):40-51
60. Haalboom B, Elliott S J, Eyles, J and Muggah H (2006) The risk society at work in the Sydney "Tar Ponds ". The Canadian Geographer 50(2):227-241
61. Halder B (2003) "Ecocide and genocide" explorations of environmental justice in Lakota Sioux country. In D G Anderson and E Berglund E (eds) Ethnographies of Conservation. Environmentalism and the Distribution of Privilege (pp 101-118). New York: Berghahn Books
62. Hall C M (1994) Tourism and Politics. Policy, Power, and Place. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons
63. Hall M C (2003) Politics and place: An analysis of power in tourism communities. In S T Singh, J Dallen and R K Dowling (eds) Tourism in Destination Communities (pp 99-113). Wallingford, UK: CABI Publishing
64. Hamilton C (1993) Confronting environmental racism. Voices from the grassroots. In R D Bullard and B J Chavis (eds) Confronting Environmental Racism (pp 63-75). Boston, MA: South End Press
65. Harrison E (2009) Email confirmation of TNP tickets sold in 2008: 134, 255 (number from Ministerio Del Ambiente Y Energia (MINAE))
66. Harrison E, Troëng S and various research assistants (2004) Report on the 2004 Green Turtle Program at Tortuguero, Costa Rica. San Pedro, Costa Rica: Caribbean Conservation Corporation
67. Harvey D (1996) Justice, Nature & The Geography of Difference. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing
68. Heyman J M (2005) The political ecology of consumption. In S Paulson and L L Gezon (eds) Political Ecology across Spaces, Scales, and Social Groups. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press
69. Heynen N, Perkins H A and Roy P (2008) The political ecology of uneven green space Urban Affairs Review 42(1):3-25
70. Hillery M, Nancarrow B, Griffin G and Syme G (2001) Tourist perceptions of environmental impact. Annals of Tourism Research 28(4):853-867
71. Homewood K M (1991) Maasailand Ecology: Pastoralist Development and Wildlife Conservation in Ngorongoro, Tanzania. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press
72. Honey M (1999) Ecotourism and Sustainable Development. Who Owns Paradise? Washington DC: Island Press
73. Hughes D M (2005) Third nature: Making space and time in the Great Limpopo Conservation Area. Cultural Anthropology 20(3):157-184
74. Hughes M and Morrison-Saunders A (2003) Visitor attitudes toward a modified natural attraction. Society and Natural Resources 16(3):191-203
75. Jarquin O and Gayle A (2004) Análysis de Situación de Salud Para el Sector. Tortuguero: EBAIS (Regional medical team assigned to seven villages in Tortuguero's municipality)
76. Johnston A M (2003) Self-determination: Exercising indigenous rights in tourism. In S T Singh, J Dallen, R K Dowling (eds) Tourism in Destination Communities (pp 115-133). Wallingford, UK: CABI Publishing
77. Khan F (2002) The roots of environmental racism and the rise of environmental justice in the 1990s. In D A Mcdonald (ed) Environmental Justice in South Africa (pp 15-49). Athens, OH: Ohio University Press and Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press
78. Kirby A (2004) Islands face major waste problem. Jeju, Korea, BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-12/hi/science/nature/3580253.stm Accessed 1 April 2004
79. Kuletz V (2002) The movement for environmental justice in the Pacific Islands. In J E Adamson, M M Evans and R Stein (eds) The Environmental Justice Reader (pp 125-142). Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press
80. Kuo N W and Yu Y H (2001) An investigation of the environmental loads of Shei-Pa National Park in Taiwan. Environmental Geology 40(3):312-316
81. Lee C (1993) Beyond toxic wastes and race. In R Bullard (ed) Confronting Environmental Racism. Voices from the Grassroots (pp 41-52). Boston, MA: South End Press
82. Lee D N B and Snepenger D J (1992) An ecotourism assessment of Tortuguero, Costa Rica. Annals of Tourism Research 19(2):367-370
83. Lefever H G (1992) Turtle Bogue. Afro-Caribbean Life and Culture in a Costa Rican Village. Selingsgrove: Susquehanna University Press and Cranbury, NJ: Associated University Press
84. Levi J M (1999) Hidden transcripts among the Rarámuri: Culture, resistance, and interethnic relations in northern Mexico. American Ethnologist 26(1):90-113
85. Lindberg K, Enriquez J and Sproule K (1996) Ecotourism questioned. Case studies from Belize. Annals of Tourism Research 23(3):543-562
86. Lyon S (2006) Evaluating fair trade consumption, politics, defetishization and producer participation. International Journal of Consumer Studies 30(5):452-464
87. Manokha I (2004) Modern slavery and Fair Trade products: Buy one and set someone free. In C Van Den Anker (ed) The Political Economy of New Slavery (pp 217-234). New York: Palgrave Macmillan
88. Martinez-Alier J (2003) Mining conflicts, environmental justice and valuation. In J Agyeman, R D Bullard and B Evans (eds) Just Sustainabilities - Development in an Unequal World (pp 201-228). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
89. Maschesky W (2003) Environmental justice in Scotland-just words? A view from the outside (for) Friends of The Earth Scotland. http://www.foe-scotland.org.uk/nation/ej_a_view_from_outside.pdf Accessed 1 September 2003)
90. McDonald D A E (2002) Environmental Justice in South Africa. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press and Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press
91. McDonald M and Wearing S (2003) Reconciling communities' expectations of Ecotourism: Initiating a planning and education strategy for the Avoca Beach Rock Platform. In B Garrod and J C Wilson (eds) Marine Ecotourism. Issues and Experiences (pp 155-170). Clevedon: Channel View Publications
92. McMinn S and Cater E (1998) Tourist typology. Observations from Belize. Annals of Tourism Research 23(3):675-699
93. Meletis Z A (2004) La planta esta funcionando? [The plant is working?]. Costa Rica and the USA, 22 minutes
94. Meletis Z A (2007) "Wasted visits? Ecotourism in theory vs. practice, at Tortuguero, Costa Rica." Unpublished PhD thesis, Duke University
95. Meletis Z A and Campbell L M (2007) Call it consumption!(Re)conceptualizing ecotourism as consumption and consumptive. Geography Compass 1(4):850-870
96. Ministerio Del Ambiente Y Energia (MINAE) (no date) Area de Conservación Tortuguero (ACTo). San Jose: Costa Rica
97. Moberg M (2005) Fair Trade and eastern Caribbean banana farmers: Rhetoric and reality in the anti-globalization movement. Human Organization 64(1):4-15
98. Moore S A (2008) Waste practices and politics: The case of Oaxaca, Mexico. In D V Carruthers (ed) Environmental Justice in Latin America (pp 119-136). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
99. Mowforth M and Munt I (1998) Tourism and Sustainability. New Tourism in the Third World. London: Routledge
100. Nelson V (2005) Representation and images of people, place and nature in Grenada's tourism. Geografiska Annaler 87B(2):131-143
101. Njeru J (2006) The urban political ecology of plastic bag waste problem in Nairobi, Kenya. Geoforum 37(6):1046-1058
102. Norton A (1996) Experiencing nature: The reproduction of environmental discourse through safari tourism in East Africa. Geoforum 27(3):355-373
103. Nygren A (2003) Nature as contested terrain. Conflicts over wilderness protection and local livelihoods in Rio San Juan, Nicaragua. In D G Anderson and E Berglund (eds) Ethnographies of Conservation. Environmentalism and the Distribution of Privilege (pp 33-49). New York: Berghan Books
104. Orams M B (1999) Marine Tourism. Development, Impacts and Management. London: Routledge
105. Özdilek H G, Yalçin-Özilek S, Ozaner F S and Sönmez B S (2006) Impact of accumulated beach litter on Chelonia mydas L. 1758 (Green Turtle) hatchlings of the Samandà coast, Hatay, Turkey. Fresenius Environmental Bulletin PSP Volume 15(2):1-9
106. Peisch S J (no date) Pesticides in the Barrio: The case of Guayanilla, Puerto Rico. EJRC-Voices From the Grassroots. http://www.ejrc.cau/ POCEG_03.PDF Accessed 29 March 2007
107. Pellow D N (2000) Environmental inequality formation: Toward a theory of environmental injustice. The American Behavioral Scientist 43(4):581-601
108. Pellow D N and Brulle R J (2005) Power, Justice, and the Environment. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
109. Peña D G (2002) Endangered landscapes and disappearing peoples? Identity, place, and community in ecological politics. In J E Adamson, M M Evans and R Stein (eds) The Environmental Justice Reader (pp 58-81). Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press
110. Peña D G (2005) Autonomy, equity, and environmental justice. In D N Pellow and R J Breulle (eds) Power, Justice and the Environment (pp 131-151). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
111. Perkins H A and Heynen N (2004) Inequitable access to urban reforestation: The impact of urban political economy on housing tenure and urban forests. Cities 21(4):291-299
112. Peskin J (2002) "Local guides' attitudes toward ecotourism, sea turtle conservation, and guiding in Tortuguero, Costa Rica." Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Florida
113. Place S (1991) Nature tourism and rural development in Tortuguero. Annals of Tourism Research 18(1):186-201
114. Pleumarom A (1999) Eco-tourism: An ecological and economic trap for Third World Countries. Third World Network. http://twnside.org.sg Accessed 29 March 2007
115. Porter R and Tarrant M A (2001) A case study of environmental justice and federal tourism sites in southern Appalachia: A GIS application. Journal of Travel Research 40(1):27-40
116. Pulido L (1996) A critical review of the methodology of environmental racism research. Antipode 28(2):142-159
117. Rees W E and Westra L (2003) When consumption does violence: Can there be sustainability and environmental justice in a resource-limited world? In J Ageyman, R D Bullard and B Evans (eds). Just Sustainabilities. Development in an Unequal World (pp 99-124). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
118. Ryan C, Hughes K and Chirgwin S (2000) The gaze, spectacle and ecotourism. Annals of Tourism Research 27(1):148-163
119. Safina C (2006) Voyage of the Turtle. In Pursuit of the Earth's Last Dinosaur. New York: Henry Holt and Company
120. Scheyvens R (1999) Ecotourism and the empowerment of local communities. Tourism Management 20:245-249
121. Scheyvens R (2002) Tourism for Development. Empowering Communities. Harlow, Essex: Prentice Hall, Pearson Education
122. Schlosberg D (1999) Environmental Justice and the New Pluralism. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press
123. Sherwood D (2007) Recycling center cleans up Tortuguero area. The Tico Times San Jose, Costa Rica 13 July
124. Silman R (2002) Costa Rica provides a world example for sea turtle protection (Caribbean Conservation Press Release). Gainsville, FL: Caribbean Conservation Corporation. http://cccturtle.org/ pressreleases.php?page=n-_crpasses-new-law Accessed 1 April 2009
125. Simpson A (2002) Who hears their cry? African American women and the fight for environmental justice in Memphis, Tennessee. In J Adamson, M M Evans and R Stein (eds) The Environmental Justice Reader (pp 82-104). Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press
126. Sindiga I (1995) Wildlife-based tourism in Kenya: Land use conflicts and government compensation policies over protected areas. Journal of Tourism Studies 6(2):45-55
127. Smith D (2005) La Comunidad. Tortuguero, Costa Rica. Una pelicula sobre la gente y la naturaleza de Tortuguero. Costa Rica and USA: Associacion CAVU
128. Smith M and Duffy R (2003) The Ethics of Tourism Development. London: Routledge
129. Smith N (2006) There's no such thing as a natural disaster. Understanding Katrina. http://understandingkatrina.ssec.org/Smith/ Accessed 31 May 2007
130. Stern C J, Lassoie J P, Lee D R and Deshler D J (2003) How "eco" is ecotourism? A comparative case study of ecotourism in Costa Rica. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 11(4):322-347
131. Talbot J M (2004) Grounds for Agreement. The Political Economy of the Coffee Commodity Chain. London: Rowman & Littlefield
132. Tarmann K F (2002) The Fair Trade Coffee Movement: Norm change or niche marketing? Woodrow Wilson Department of Politics. Arlington, VA: University of Virginia
133. Tarrant M A and Cordell H K (1999) Environmental justice and the spatial distribution of outdoor recreation sites: An application of geographic information systems. Journal of Leisure Research 31(1):18-34
134. The International Ecotourism Society (no date) Ecotourism - definitions and principles. https//:eCotourism.org Accessed 12 June 2006
135. Thrupp L A (1990) Environmental initiatives in Costa Rica: A political ecology perspective. Society and Natural Resources 3:243-256
136. Torres R and Skillicorn P (2004) Montezuma's revenge: How sanitation concerns may injure Mexico's tourist industry. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly 45(3):132-144
137. Trist C (1999) Recreating open space: Recreational consumption and representation of the Caribbean marine environment. Professional Geographer 51(3):376-387
138. Troëng S (2004) Five decades of sea turtle conservation, monitoring and research at Tortuguero. Presentation given at Tortuga Lodge, 8 August 2004. Tortuguero, Costa Rica
139. Troëng S and Drews C (2004) Money talks. Economic aspects of marine turtle use and conservation. Gland, Switzerland: WWF-International
140. Troëng S and Rankin E (2005) Long-term conservation efforts contribute to positive green turtle Chelonias Mydas nesting trend at Tortuguero, Costa Rica. Biological Conservation 121(1):111-116
141. Urry J (1995) Consuming Places. London: Routledge
142. Urry J (2002) The Tourist Gaze. London: Sage Publications
143. US General Accounting Office (1983) Siting of hazardous waste landfills and their correlation with racial and economic status of surrounding communities. Washington DC: Government Printing Office
144. Walker G and Bulkeley H (2006) Editorial: Geographies of environmental justice. Geoforum 37(5):655-659
145. Weaver D B (1998) Ecotourism in the Less Developed World. Wallingford, UK: CABI Publishing
146. Weaver D B (1999) Magnitude of ecotourism in Costa Rica and Kenya. Annals of Tourism Research 26(4):792-816
147. Weaver D B (2001) Ecotourism. Milton: John Wiley & Sons Australia
148. Weaver D B (2002) The evolving concept of ecotourism and its potential impacts. International Journal of Sustainable Development. Special Issue: Ecotourism. 5(3):251-264
149. West P C, Fortwangler C L, Agbo V, Simsik M and Sokpon N (2003) The political economy of ecotourism. Pendjari National Park and ecotourism concentration in northern Benin. In S R Brechin, P R Wilshusen, C L Fortwangler and P C West (eds) Contested Nature: Promoting International Biodiversity with Social Justice in the Twenty-first Century (pp 103-115). New York: State University of New York Press
150. Wight P A (1996) North American Ecotourists: Market Profile and Trip Characteristics. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications
151. Wu C and Wang S (2002) Environment, development and human rights in China: A case study of foreign waste dumping. In L Zarsky (ed) Human Rights and The Environment. London: Earthscan
152. Zebich-Knos M (2008) Ecotourism, park systems, and environmental justice in Latin America. In D V Carruthers (ed) Environmental Justice in Latin America (pp 185-211). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press