The pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: A review

Marine Pollution Bulletin

Volumn 44, Issue 9, 2002, Pages 842-852

  Derraik, José G B ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OTAGO   (New Zealand)

Author keywords

Marine environment; Plastic debris; Pollution

Indexed keywords

BIODIVERSITY; DEBRIS; WATER POLLUTION;

PLASTIC DEBRIS;

MARINE ENGINEERING;

PLASTIC; POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYL;

ECOLOGICAL IMPACT; MARINE POLLUTION; MITIGATION; PLASTIC WASTE;

ABSORPTION; ECOSYSTEM; ENDANGERED SPECIES; FISHING; HAZARD; INGESTION; MARINE ENVIRONMENT; REVIEW; SEA POLLUTION; SURVIVAL;

ANIMALS; MARINE BIOLOGY; OCEANS AND SEAS; PLASTICS; POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS; REFUSE DISPOSAL; WATER POLLUTANTS, CHEMICAL; WATER POLLUTION;

ANIMALIA;

EID: 0036754217     PISSN: 0025326X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0025-326X(02)00220-5     Document Type: Review

References (140)

1. Anon, 1975. Plastic cups found in fish. Marine Pollution Bulletin 6, 148
2. Anon, 1990. Garbage. Center for Marine Conservation, Washington DC
3. Amos, A.F., 1993. Solid Waste Pollution on Texas Beaches: A Post MARPOL Annex V Study, vol. 1. OCS Study MMS 93-0013. United States Department of Interior, New Orleans
4. Andrady, A.L., Pegram, J.E., Olson, T.M., 1992. Research and Development of Two Marine-degradable Biopolymers. Report, David-Taylor Research Centre, Research Triangle Park, Northern Carolina, USA
5. Azzarello M.Y., Van-Vleet E.S. Marine birds and plastic pollution. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 37:1987;295-303.
6. Baird R.W., Hooker S.K. Ingestion of plastic and unusual prey by a juvenile Harbour Porpoise. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 40:2000;719-720.
7. Balazs G. Impact of ocean debris on marine turtles: entanglement and ingestion. Shomura R.S., Yoshida H.O. Proceedings of the Workshop on the Fate and Impact of Marine Debris, 27-29 November 1984, Honolulu. 1985;387-429 US Department of Commerce. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS SWFC-54.
8. Bean M.J. Legal strategies for reducing persistent plastics in the marine environment. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 18:1987;357-360.
9. Beatley T. Protecting biodiversity in coastal environments: introduction and overview. Coastal Management. 19:1991;1-19.
10. Beck C.A., Barros N.B. The impact of debris on the Florida manatee. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 22:1991;508-510.
11. Bentley R. Evaluation of environmentally acceptable packaging for Navy use. Marine Technology Society: Challenges and Opportunities in the Marine Environment. - Conference Proceedings:1994;656-662.
12. Benton T.G. From castaways to throwaways: marine litter in the Pitcairn Islands. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 56:1995;415-422.
13. Bjorndal K.A., Bolten A.B., Lagueux C.J. Ingestion of marine debris by juvenile sea turtles in coastal Florida habitats. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 28:1994;154-158.
14. Blight L.K., Burger A.E. Occurrence of plastic particles in seabirds from the eastern North Pacific. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 34:1997;323-325.
15. Bourne W.R.P., Imber M.J. Plastic pellets collected by a prion on Gough Island, Central South Atlantic Ocean. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 13:1982;20-21.
16. Bugoni L., Krause L., Petry M.V. Marine debris and human impacts on sea turtles in Southern Brazil. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 42:2001;1330-1334.
17. Carpenter E.J., Anderson S.J., Harvey G.R., Miklas H.P., Peck B.B. Polystyrene spherules in coastal waters. Science. 178:1972;749-750.
18. Carpenter E.J., Smith K.L. Plastics on the Sargasso Sea surface. Science. 175:1972;1240-1241.
19. Carr A. Impact of nondegradable marine debris on the ecology and survival outlook of sea turtles. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 18:1987;352-356.
20. Cawthorn M. Impacts of marine debris on wildlife in New Zealand coastal waters. Proceedings of Marine Debris in New Zealand's Coastal Waters Workshop, 9 March 1989, Wellington, New Zealand. 1989;5-6 Department of Conservation, Wellington, New Zealand.
21. Clark R.B. Marine Pollution. 1997;Clarendon Press, Oxford.
22. CMC - Center for Marine Conservation, 2002. MARPOL/MPPRCA. Available online on http://www.cmc-ocean.org/mdio/marpol.php3.
23. Coleman F.C., Wehle D.H.S. Plastic pollution: a worldwide problem. Parks. 9:1984;9-12.
24. Connors P.G., Smith K.G. Oceanic plastic particle pollution: suspected effect on fat deposition in red phalaropes. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 13:1982;18-20.
25. Corbin C.J., Singh J.G. Marine debris contamination of beaches in St. Lucia and Dominica. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 26:1993;325-328.
26. Croxall J.P., Rodwell S., Boyd I.L. Entanglement in man-made debris of Antarctic fur seals at Bird Island, South Georgia. Marine Mammal Science. 6:1990;221-233.
27. Debrot A.O., Tiel A.B., Bradshaw J.E. Beach debris in Curaçao. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 38:1999;795-801.
28. DeGange A.R., Newby T.C. Mortality of seabirds and fish in a lost salon driftnet. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 1:1980;322-323.
29. DOC - Department of Conservation, 1990. Marine Debris. Wellington, New Zealand
30. Doering P.H., Sullivan B.K., Jeon H. Effects of biodegradable plastic components on metabolism of an estuarine benthos. Journal of Environmental Polymer Degradation. 2:1994;271-275.
31. Duguy R., Moriniere P., Lemilinaire C. Factors of mortality of marine turtles in the Bay of Biscay. Oceanologia Acta. 21:1998;383-388.
32. Feldkamp S., Costa D., DeKrey G.K. Energetics and behavioural effects of net entanglement on juvenile northern fur seals Callorhinus ursinus. Fisheries Bulletin. 87:1989;85-94.
33. Fergusson W.C. Summary. Staudinger J.J.P. Plastics and the Environment. 1974;2 Hutchinson and Co, London.
34. Fowler C.W. Marine debris and northern fur seals: a case study. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 18:1987;326-335.
35. Fry D.M., Fefer S.I., Sileo L. Ingestion of plastic debris by Laysan albatross and wedge-tailed shearwaters in the Hawaiian Islands. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 18:1987;339-343.
36. Furness R.W. Plastic particle pollution: accumulation by Procellariiform seabirds at Scottish colonies. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 16:1985;103-106.
37. Galgani F., Burgeot T., Bocquene G., Vincent F., Leaute J.P., Labastie J., Forest A., Guichet R. Distribution and abundance of debris on the continental shelf of the Bay of Biscay and in Seine Bay. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 30:1995a;58-62.
38. Galgani F., Jaunet S., Campillo A., Guenegen X., His E. Distribution and abundance of debris on the continental shelf of the north-western Mediterranean Sea. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 30:1995b;713-717.
39. Galgani F., Souplet A., Cadiou Y. Accumulation of debris on the deep sea floor of the French Mediterranean Coast. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 142:1996;225-234.
40. Galgani F., Leaute J.P., Moguedet P., Souplets A., Verin Y., Carpenter A., Goraguer H., Latrouite D., Andral B., Cadiou Y., Mahe J.C., Poulard J.C., Nerisson P. Litter on the sea floor along European coasts. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 40:2000;516-527.
41. Garrity S.D., Levings S.C. Marine debris along the Caribbean coast of Panama. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 26:1993;317-324.
42. Gilligan M.R., Randal S.P., Richardson J.P., Kozel T.R. Rates of accumulation of marine debris in Chatham County, Georgia. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 24:1992;436-441.
43. Goldberg E.D. Diamonds and plastics are forever? Marine Pollution Bulletin. 28:1994;466.
44. Goldberg E.D. The health of the oceans - A 1994 update Chemical Ecology. 10:1995;3-8.
45. Goldberg E.D. Plasticizing the seafloor: an overview. Environmental Technology. 18:1997;195-202.
46. Golik A. Debris in the Mediterranean Sea: types, quantities, and behavior. Coe J.M., Rogers D.B. Marine Debris. - Sources, Impacts and Solutions:1997;7-14 Springer-Verlag, New York.
47. Gorman M. Environmental Hazards. - Marine Pollution:1993;ABC-CLIO Inc, Santa Barbara.
48. Gramentz D. Involvement of loggerhead turtle with the plastic, metal, and hydrocarbon pollution in the Central Mediterranean. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 19:1988;11-13.
49. Grassle J.F., Lassere P., McIntyre A.D., Ray G.C. Marine biodiversity and ecosystem function. Biology International Special Issue. 23:1991;1-19.
50. Gregory M.R. Plastic pellets on New Zealand beaches. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 8:1977;82-84.
51. Gregory M.R. Accumulation and distribution of virgin plastic granules on New Zealand beaches. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research. 12:1978;399-414.
52. Gregory, M.R., 1989. Accumulation of plastic debris in New Zealand's coastal waters and exclusive economic zone. In: Proceedings of Marine Debris in New Zealand's Coastal Waters Workshop, 9 March 1989, Wellington, New Zealand. Department of Conservation, Wellington, New Zealand, pp. 3-4.
53. Gregory M.R. The hazards of persistent marine pollution: drift plastics and conservation islands. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand. 21:1991;83-100.
54. Gregory M.R. Plastic "scrubbers" in hand cleansers: a further (and minor) source for marine pollution identified. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 32:1996;867-871.
55. Gregory M.R. Plastics and South Pacific Island shores: environmental implications. Ocean and Coastal Management. 42:1999;603-615.
56. Gregory M.R., Ryan P.G. Pelagic plastics and other seaborne persistent synthetic debris: a review of Southern Hemisphere perspectives. Coe J.M., Rogers D.B. Marine Debris. - Sources, Impacts and Solutions:1997;49-66 Springer-Verlag, New York.
57. Hanni K.D., Pyle P. Entanglement of pinnipeds in synthetic materials at South-east Farallon Island, California, 1976-1998. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 40:2000;1076-1081.
58. Hansen J. Draft position statement on plastic debris in marine environments. Fisheries. 15:1990;16-17.
59. Henderson, J.R., 1990. A review of Hawaiian monk seal entanglement in marine debris. In: Shomura, R.S., Yoshida, H.O. (Ed.), Proceedings of the Workshop on the Fate and Impact of Marine Debris, 27-29 November 1984, Honolulu. US Department of Commerce, pp. 326-336
60. Henderson J.R. A pre- and post-MARPOL Annex V summary of Hawaiian monk seal entanglements and marine debris accumulation in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, 1982-1988. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 42:2001;584-589.
61. Hess N.A., Ribic C.A., Vining I. Benthic marine debris, with an emphasis on fishery-related items, surrounding Kodiak Island, Alaska, 1994-1996. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 38:1999;885-890.
62. Horsman P.V. The amount of garbage pollution from merchant ships. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 13:1982;167-169.
63. Horsman P.V. Garbage kills. BBC Wildlife. 3:1985;391-393.
64. Irish K.E., Norse E.A. Scant emphasis on marine biodiversity. Conservation Biology. 10:1996;680.
65. Johnson S.W. Deposition of trawl web on an Alaska beach after implementation of MARPOL Annex V Legislation. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 28:1994;477-481.
66. Jones M.M. Fishing debris in the Australian marine environment. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 30:1995;25-33.
67. Kanehiro H., Tokai T., Matuda K. Marine litter composition and distribution on the seabed of Tokyo Bay. Fisheries Engineering. 31:1995;195-199.
68. Kartar S., Abou-Seedo F., Sainsbury M. Polystyrene spherules in the Severn Estuary - A progress report Marine Pollution Bulletin. 7:1976;52.
69. Kirkley J., McConnell K.E. Marine debris: benefits, costs and choices. Coe J.M., Rogers D.B. Marine Debris. - Sources, Impacts and Solutions:1997;171-185 Springer-Verlag, New York.
70. Laist D.W. Overview of the biological effects of lost and discarded plastic debris in the marine environment. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 18:1987;319-326.
71. Laist D.W. Impacts of marine debris: entanglement of marine life in marine debris including a comprehensive list of species with entanglement and ingestion records. Coe J.M., Rogers D.B. Marine Debris. - Sources, Impacts and Solutions:1997;99-139 Springer-Verlag, New York.
72. Lara-Dominguez A.L., Villalobos-Zapata G.J., Rivera-Arriaga E., Vera-Herrera F., Alvarez-Guillen H. Source of solid garbage in Campeche beaches, Mexico. Revista de la Sociedad Mexicana de Historia Natural. 45:1994;133-142.
73. Lee K., Tanabe S., Koh C. Contamination of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in sediments from Kyeonggi Bay and nearby areas, Korea. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 42:2001;273-279.
74. Lentz S.A. Plastics in the marine environment: legal approaches for international action. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 18:1987;361-365.
75. Lovejoy T.E. Biodiversity: what is it? Reaka-Kudla M.K., Wilson D.E., Wilson E.O. Biodiversity II: Understanding and Protecting our Biological Resources. 1997;7-14 Joseph Henry Press, Washington DC.
76. Madzena A., Lasiak T. Spatial and temporal variations in beach litter on the Transkei coast of South Africa. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 34:1997;900-907.
77. Manski D.A., Gregg W.P., Cole C.A., Richards D.V. Annual Report of the National Park Marine Debris Monitoring Program: 1990 Marine Debris Surveys. 1991;National Park Services, Washington DC.
78. Mattlin R.H., Cawthorn M.W. Marine debris. - an international problem New Zealand Environment. 51:1986;3-6.
79. Mato Y., Isobe T., Takada H., Kanehiro H., Ohtake C., Kaminuma T. Plastic resin pellets as a transport medium for toxic chemicals in the marine environment. Environmental Science Technology. 35:2001;318-324.
80. McKinney R.L. On predicting biotic homogenization. - Species-area patterns in marine biota Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters. 7:1998;297-301.
81. Mergaert J., Wouters A., Anderson C., Swings J. In situ biodegradation of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate). and poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) in natural waters. Canadian Journal of Microbiology. 41:1995;154-159.
82. Minchin D. Tar pellets and plastics as attachment surfaces for Lepadid cirripedes in the North Atlantic Ocean. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 32:1996;855-859.
83. Morris R.J. Floating plastic debris in the Mediterranean. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 11:1980;125.
84. Moser M.L., Lee D.S. A fourteen-year survey of plastic ingestion by western North Atlantic seabirds. Colonial Waterbirds. 15:1992;83-94.
85. Murphy, D.D., Duffus, D.A., 1996. Conservation biology and marine biodiversity. Conservation Biology 10, 311-312
86. National Research Council, 1995. Understanding Marine Biodiversity. National Academy Press, Washington DC
87. Nee J. What do you do when the nearest trashcan is 2000 miles away? Seafarer. 39:1990;8-9.
88. Ninaber E. MARPOL Annex V, commercial ships, and port reception facilites: making it work. Coe J.M., Rogers D.B. Marine Debris. - Sources, Impacts and Solutions:1997;239-243 Springer-Verlag, New York.
89. O'Hara K., Iudicello S., Bierce R. A Citizen's Guide to Plastics in the Ocean: More than a Litter Problem. 1988;Center for Marine Conservation, Washington DC.
90. Ormond R.F.G., Gage J.D., Angel M.V. Marine biodiversity: patterns and processes. 1997;Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
91. Pearce J.B. Marine vessel debris: a North American perspective. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 24:1992;586-592.
92. Pemberton D., Brothers N.P., Kirkwood R. Entanglement of Australian fur seals in man-made debris in Tasmanian waters. Wildlife Research. 19:1992;151-159.
93. Pruter A.T. Sources, quantities and distribution of persistent plastics in the marine environment. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 18:1987;305-310.
94. Quayle D.V. Plastics in the marine environment: problems and solutions. Chemical Ecology. 6:1992;69-78.
95. Ray G.C. Ecological diversity in coastal zones and oceans. Wilson E.O., Peter F.M. Biodiversity. 1988;36-50 National Academy Press, Washington DC.
96. Ray G.C., Grassle J.F. Marine biological diversity. BioScience. 41:1991;453-457.
97. Redford D.P., Trulli H.K., Trulli W.R. Sources of plastic pellets in the aquatic environment. Coe J.M., Rogers D.B. Marine Debris. - Sources, Impacts and Solutions:1997;335-343 Springer-Verlag, New York.
98. Ribic C.A. Use of indicator items to monitor marine debris on a New Jersey Beach from 1991 to 1996. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 36:1998;887-891.
99. Ribic C.A., Scott W.J., Cole C.A. Distribution, type, accumulation, and source of marine debris in the United States, 1989-1993. Coe J.M., Rogers D.B. Marine Debris. - Sources, Impacts and Solutions:1997;35-47 Springer-Verlag, New York.
100. Robards M.D., Piatt J.F., Wohl K.D. Increasing frequency of plastic particles ingested by seabirds in the subarctic North Pacific. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 30:1995;151-157.
101. Ross S.S., Parker R., Strickland M. A survey of shoreline litter in Halifax Harbour 1989. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 22:1991;245-248.
102. Ross S.S., Swanson R.L. The impact of the Suffolk County, New York, plastics ban on beach and roadside litter. Journal of Environmental Systems. 23:1995;337-351.
103. Rothstein S.I. Plastic particle pollution of the surface of the Atlantic Ocean: evidence from a seabird. Condor. 75:1973;344-345.
104. Ryan P.G. The incidence and characteristics of plastic particles ingested by seabirds. Marine Environment Research. 23:1987a;175-206.
105. Ryan P.G. The origin and fate of artefacts stranded on islands in the African sector of the Southern Ocean. Environmental Conservation. 14:1987b;341-346.
106. Ryan P.G. Effects of ingested plastic on seabird feeding: evidence from chickens. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 19:1988;125-128.
107. Ryan P.G., Connell A.D., Gardner B.D. Plastic ingestion and PCBs in seabirds: is there a relationship? Marine Pollution Bulletin. 19:1988;174-176.
108. Ryan P.G., Moloney C.L. Plastic and other artefacts on South African beaches: temporal trends in abundance and composition. South African Journal of Science. 86:1990;450-452.
109. Schrey E., Vauk G.J.M. Records of entangled gannets (Sula bassana) at Helgoland, German Bight. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 18:1987;350-352.
110. Secchi E., Zarzur S. Plastic debris ingested by a Blainville's beaked whale, Mesoplodon densirostris, washed ashore in Brazil. Aquatic Mammals. 25:1999;21-24.
111. Shaw D.G. Pelagic tar and plastic in the Gulf of Alaska and Bering Sea: 1975. Science of the Total Environment. 8:1977;13-20.
112. Shaw D.G., Mapes G.A. Surface circulation and the distribution of pelagic tar and plastic. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 10:1979;160-162.
113. Shaw D.G., Day R.H. Colour- and form-dependent loss of plastic micro-debris from the North Pacific Ocean. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 28:1994;39-43.
114. Shiber J.G. Plastic pellets on the coast of Lebanon. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 10:1979;28-30.
115. Shiber J.G. Plastic pellets on Spain's 'Costa del Sol' beaches. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 13:1982;409-412.
116. Shiber J.G. Plastic pellets and tar on Spain's Mediterranean beaches. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 18:1987;84-86.
117. Slip D.J., Burton H.R. Accumulation of fishing debris, plastic litter, and other artefacts, on Heard and Macquarie Islands in the Southern Ocean. Environmental Conservation. 18:1991;249-254.
118. Slip D.J., Green K., Woehler E.J. Ingestion of anthropogenic articles by seabirds at Macquarie Island. Marine Ornithology. 18:1990;74-77.
119. Smith P., Tooker J. Marine debris on New Zealand coastal beaches. 1990;Greenpeace, Auckland.
120. Snelgrove P.V.R. Getting to the bottom of marine biodiversity: sedimentary habitats. BioScience. 49:1999;129-138.
121. Spear L.B., Ainley D.G., Ribic C.A. Incidence of plastic in seabirds from the Tropical Pacific, 1984-91: relation with distribution of species, sex, age, season, year and body weight. Marine Environmental Research. 40:1995;123-146.
122. Stefatos A., Charalampakis M., Papatheodorou G., Ferentinos G. Marine debris on the seafloor of the Mediterranean Sea: examples from two enclosed gulfs in Western Greece. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 36:1999;389-393.
123. Tarpley R.J., Marwitz S. Plastic debris ingestion by cetaceans along the Texas coast: two case reports. Aquatic Mammals. 19:1993;93-98.
124. Tickel C. The value of biodiversity. Ormond R.F.G., Gage J.D., Angel M.V. Marine Biodiversity: Patterns and Processes. 1997;xiii-xxii Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
125. Tomás J., Guitart R., Mateo R., Raga J.A. Marine debris ingestion in loggerhead sea turtles, Caretta caretta, from the Western Mediterranean. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 44:2002;211-216.
126. UNESCO, 1994. Marine Debris: Solid Waste Management Action Plan for the Wider Caribbean. IOC Technical Series 41, Paris
127. Van Franeker J.A., Bell P.J. Plastic ingestion by petrels breeding in Antarctica. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 19:1988;672-674.
128. Vauk G.J.M., Schrey E. Litter pollution from ships in the German Bight. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 18:1987;316-319.
129. Walker T.R., Reid K., Arnould J.P.Y., Croxall J.P. Marine debris surveys at Bird Island, South Georgia 1990-1995. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 34:1997;61-65.
130. Weisskopf M. Plastic reaps a grim harvest in the oceans of the world (plastic trash kills and maims marine life). Smithsonian. 18:1988;58.
131. Whiting S.D. Types and sources of marine debris in Fog Bay, Northern Australia. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 36:1998;904-910.
132. Wilber R.J. Plastic in the North Atlantic. Oceanus. 30:1987;61-68.
133. Williams A.T., Simmons S.L. Estuarine litter at the river/beach interface in the Bristol Channel, United Kingdom. Journal of Coastal Research. 13:1997;1159-1165.
134. Williams A.T., Tudor D.T. Litter burial and exhumation: spatial and temporal distribution on a cobble pocket beach. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 42:2001;1031-1039.
135. Winston J.E. Drift plastic. - an expanding niche for a marine invertebrate? Marine Pollution Bulletin. 13:1982;348-357.
136. Winston J.E., Gregory M.R., Stevens L.M. Encrusters, epibionts, and other biota associated with pelagic plastics: a review of biogeographical, environmental, and conservation issues. Coe J.M., Rogers D.B. Marine Debris. - Sources, Impacts and Solutions:1997;81-97 Springer-Verlag, New York.
137. Wolf N., Feldman E. Plastics. - America's packaging dilemma. Environmental Action Coalition:1991;Island Press, Washington DC.
138. Wolfe D.A. Persistent plastics and debris in the ocean: an international problem of ocean disposal. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 18:1987;303-305.
139. Zitko V. Expanded polystyrene as a source of contaminants. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 26:1993;584-585.
140. Zitko V., Hanlon M. Another source of pollution by plastics: skin cleaners with plastic scrubbers. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 22:1991;41-42.