Infection Prevention in the Intensive Care Unit

Infectious Disease Clinics of North America

Volumn 23, Issue 3, 2009, Pages 703-725

  Barsanti, Mary C ^a   Woeltje, Keith F ^a  

^a WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Catheter associated bloodstream infection; Catheter associated urinary tract infection; Health care associated infections; Infection control; Infection prevention; Intensive care unit; Ventilator associated pneumonia

Indexed keywords

ALCOHOL; ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; CARBAPENEM DERIVATIVE; CEPHALOSPORIN DERIVATIVE; CHLORHEXIDINE; INSULIN; RANITIDINE; SUCRALFATE;

ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; ANTISEPSIS; BACTERIAL COLONIZATION; BLOODSTREAM INFECTION; CATHETER INFECTION; CLINICAL TRIAL; CLOSTRIDIUM DIFFICILE INFECTION; COST CONTROL; COST EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS; DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; HAND WASHING; HOSPITAL HYGIENE; HOSPITAL INFECTION; HOSPITALIZATION COST; HUMAN; HYPERGLYCEMIA; INCIDENCE; INFECTION CONTROL; INFECTION PREVENTION; INFECTION RISK; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; INTERDISCIPLINARY COMMUNICATION; MALNUTRITION; METHICILLIN RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS INFECTION; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; STRESS ULCER; SURGICAL INFECTION; URINARY TRACT INFECTION; VENTILATOR ASSOCIATED PNEUMONIA;

BACTEREMIA; BACTERIAL INFECTIONS; CATHETER-RELATED INFECTIONS; CROSS INFECTION; HUMANS; INTENSIVE CARE UNITS; PNEUMONIA, VENTILATOR-ASSOCIATED; URINARY TRACT INFECTIONS;

EID: 68149167368     PISSN: 08915520     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.idc.2009.04.012     Document Type: Review

References (215)

1. Joint Commission Resources. Improving care in the ICU. 1st edition (2004), Joint Commission Resources, Oakbrook Terrace (IL)
2. Society of Critical Care Medicine. Critical care units: a descriptive analysis. 1st edition (2005), Society of Critical Care Medicine, Des Plaines (IL)
3. Warren D.K., Shukla S.J., Olsen M.A., et al. Outcome and attributable cost of ventilator-associated pneumonia among intensive care unit patients in a suburban medical center. Crit Care Med 31 5 (2003) 1312-1317
4. Blot S.I., Depuydt P., Annemans L., et al. Clinical and economic outcomes in critically ill patients with nosocomial catheter-related bloodstream infections. Clin Infect Dis 41 (2005) 1591-1598
5. Warren D.K., Quadir W.W., Hollenbeak C.S., et al. Attributable cost of catheter-associated bloodstream infections among intensive care patients in a nonteaching hospital. Crit Care Med 34 8 (2006) 2084-2089
6. Safdar N., Dezfulian C., Collard H.R., et al. Clinical and economic consequences of ventilator associated pneumonia: a systematic review. Crit Care Med 33 10 (2005) 2184-2193
7. Klevens R.M., Edwards J.R., Richards C.L., et al. Estimating health care-associated infections and deaths in U.S. hospitals, 2002. Public Health Rep 122 (2007) 160-166
8. Dempsey D.T., Mullen J.L., and Buzby G.P. The link between nutritional status and clinical outcome: can nutritional intervention modify it?. Am J Clin Nutr 47 (1988) 352-356
9. Bistrian B.R., Blackburn G.L., Scrimshaw N.S., et al. Cellular immunited in semistarved states in hospitalized adults. Am J Clin Nutr 28 (1975) 1148-1155
10. Cunningham-Rundles S. Analytical methods for evaluation of immune response in nutrient intervention. Nutr Rev 56 1 Pt 2 (1998) S27-S37
11. Scrimshaw N.S. Historical concepts of interactions, synergism and antagonism between nutrition and infection. J Nutr 133 1 (2003) 316S-321S
12. Keusch G.T. The history of nutrition: malnutrition, infection and immunity. J Nutr 133 1 (2003) 336S-340S
13. Chandra R.K., and Kumari S. Symposium: dietary nucleotides: a recently demonstrated requirement for cellular development and immune function. J Nutr 124 8 Suppl (1994) 1433S-1435S
14. Rapp-Kesek D., Ståhle E., and Karlsson T. Body mass index and albumin in the preoperative evaluation of cardiac surgery patients. Clin Nutr 23 (2004) 1398-1404
15. Kaya E., Yetim I., Dervisoglu A., et al. Risk factors for and effect of a one-year surveillance program on a surgical site infection at a university hospital in Turkey. Surg Infect (Larchmt) 7 6 (2006) 519-526
16. Rubinson L., Diette G.B., Song X., et al. Low caloric intake is associated with nosocomial bloodstream infections in patients in the medial intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 32 2 (2004) 350-357
17. Hadfield R.J., Sinclair D.G., Houldsworth P.E., et al. Effects of enteral and parenteral nutrition on gut mucosal permeability in the critically ill. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 152 (1995) 1545-1548
18. Simpson F., and Doig G.S. Parenteral vs. enteral nutrition in the critically ill patient: a meta-analysis of trials using the intention to treat principle. Intensive Care Med 31 1 (2005) 12-23
19. Bonten M.J., Kollef M.H., and Hall J.B. Risk factors for ventilator-associated pneumonia: from epidemiology to patient management. Clin Infect Dis 38 (2004) 1141-1149
20. Vasken A., Krayem H., and DiGiovine B. Effects of early enteral feeding on the outcome of critically ill mechanically ventilated medical patients. Chest 129 (2006) 960-967
21. Drakulovic M.B., Torres A., Bauer T.T., et al. Supine body position as a risk factor for nosocomial pneumonia in mechanically ventilated patients: a randomized trial. Lancet 354 9193 (1999) 1851-1858
22. Gramlich L., Kichian K., Pinilla J., et al. Does enteral nutrition compared to parenteral nutrition result in better outcomes in critically ill adult patients? A systematic review of the literature. Nutrition 20 10 (2004) 843-848
23. Radrizzani D., Bertolini G., Facchini R., et al. Early enteral immunonutrition vs. parenteral nutrition in critically ill patients without severe sepsis: a randomized clinical trial. Intensive Care Med 32 (2006) 1191-1198
24. Blondet J.J., and Beilman G.J. Glycemic control and prevention of perioperative infection. Curr Opin Crit Care 13 (2007) 421-427
25. Black C.T., Hennessey P.J., and Andrassy R.J. Short-term hyperglycemia depresses immunity through nonenzymatic glycosylation of circulating immunoglobulin. J Trauma 30 7 (1990) 830-832
26. Delamaire M., Maugendre D., Moreno M., et al. Impaired leucocyte functions in diabetic patients. Diabet Med 14 1 (1997) 29-34
27. Esposito K., Nappo F., Marfella R., et al. Inflammatory cytokine concentrations are acutely increased by hyperglycemia in humans: role of oxidative stress. Circulation 106 16 (2002) 2067-2072
28. Latham R., Lancaster A.D., Covington J.F., et al. The association of diabetes and glucose control with surgical-site infections among cardiothoracic surgery patients. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 22 10 (2001) 607-612
29. Bochicchio G.V., Sung J., Joshi M., et al. Persistent hyperglycemia is predictive of outcome in critically ill trauma patients. J Trauma 58 5 (2005) 921-924
30. Grey N.J., and Perdrizet G.A. Reduction of nosocomial infections in the surgical intensive-care unit by strict glycemic control. Endocr Pract 10 Suppl 2 (2004) 46-52
31. Hruska L.A., Smith J.M., Hendy M.P., et al. Continuous insulin infusion reduces infectious complications in diabetics following coronary surgery. J Card Surg 20 5 (2005) 403-407
32. Furnary A.P., and Wu Y. Eliminating the diabetic disadvantage: the Portland Diabetic Project. Semin Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 18 4 (2006) 302-308
33. Van den Berghe G., Wilmer A., Hermans G., et al. Intensive insulin therapy in the medical ICU. N Engl J Med 354 5 (2006) 449-461
34. Treggiari M.M., Karir V., Yanez N.D., et al. Intensive insulin therapy and mortality in critically ill patients. Crit Care 12 1 (2008) R29
35. Pronovost P.J., Jenckes M.W., Dorman T., et al. Organizational characteristics of intensive care units related to outcomes of abdominal aortic surgery. JAMA 281 14 (1999) 1310-1317
36. Jain M., Miller L., Belt D., et al. Decline in ICU adverse events, nosocomial infections and cost through a quality improvement initiative focusing on teamwork and culture change. Qual Saf Health Care 15 4 (2006) 235-239
37. Berriel-Cass D., Adkins F.W., Jones P., et al. Eliminating nosocomial infections at Ascension Health. Jt Comm J Qual Patient Saf 32 11 (2006) 612-620
38. Harrigan S., Hurst D., Lee C., et al. Developing and implementing quality initiatives in the ICU: strategies and outcomes. Crit Care Nurs Clin North Am 18 4 (2006) 469-479
39. Misset B., Timsit J.F., Dumay M.F., et al. A continuous quality-improvement program reduces nosocomial infection rates in the ICU. Intensive Care Med 30 3 (2004) 395-400
40. Apisarnthanarak A., Pinitchai U., Thongphubeth K., et al. Effectiveness of an educational program to reduce ventilator-associated pneumonia in a tertiary care center in Thailand: a 4-year study. Clin Infect Dis 45 6 (2007) 704-711
41. Zack J.E., Garrison T., Trovillion E., et al. Effect of an education program aimed at reducing the occurrence of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Crit Care Med 30 11 (2002) 2407-2412
42. Pronovost P., Needham D., Berenholtz S., et al. An intervention to decrease catheter-related bloodstream infections in the ICU. N Engl J Med 355 26 (2006) 2725-2732
43. Lobo R.D., Levin A.S., Gomes L.M., et al. Impact of an educational program and policy changes on decreasing catheter-associated bloodstream infections in a medical intensive care unit in Brazil. Am J Infect Control 33 2 (2005) 83-87
44. Hugonnet S., Chevrolet J., and Pittet D. The effect of workload on infection risk in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 35 1 (2007) 76-81
45. Hugonnet S., Uçkay I., and Pittet D. Staffing level: a determinant of late-onset ventilator-associated pneumonia. Crit Care 11 4 (2007) R80
46. Fridkin S.K., Pear S.M., Williamson T.H., et al. The role of understaffing in central venous catheter-associated bloodstream infections. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 17 3 (1996) 150-158
47. Hugonnet S., Harbarth S., Sax H., et al. Nursing resources: a major determinant of nosocomial infection?. Curr Opin Infect Dis 17 (2004) 329-333
48. Kovner C., and Gergen P.J. Nurse staffing levels and adverse events following surgery in U.S. hospitals. Image J Nurs Sch 30 4 (1998) 315-321
49. Kane R.L., Shamliyan T.A., Mueller C., et al. The association of registered nurse staffing levels and patient outcomes: systematic review and meta-analysis. Med Care 45 12 (2007) 1195-1204
50. Cho S.H., Ketefian S., Barkauskas V.H., et al. The effects of nurse staffing on adverse events, morbidity, mortality and medical costs. Nurse Res 52 2 (2003) 71-79
51. Needleman J., Buerhaus P., Mattke S., et al. Nurse-staffing levels and the quality of care in hospitals. N Engl J Med 346 22 (2002) 1715-1722
52. Robert J., Fridkin S.K., Blumberg H.M., et al. The influence of the composition of the nursing staff on primary bloodstream infection rates in a surgical intensive care unit. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 21 1 (2000) 12-17
53. Alonso-Echanove J., Edwards J.R., Richards M.J., et al. Effect of nurse staffing and antimicrobial-impregnated central venous catheters on the risk for bloodstream infections in intensive care units. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 24 12 (2003) 916-925
54. Pittet D., Dharan S., Touveneau S., et al. Bacterial contamination of the hands of hospital staff during routine patient care. Arch Intern Med 159 8 (1999) 821-826
55. Markogiannakis A., Fildisis G., Tsiplakou S., et al. Cross-transmission of multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii clonal strains causing episodes of sepsis in a trauma intensive care unit. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 29 5 (2008) 410-417
56. Ojajärvi J. Effectiveness of hand washing and disinfection methods in removing transient bacteria after patient nursing. J Hyg (Lond) 85 2 (1980) 193-203
57. Oelberg D.G., Joyner S.E., Jiang X., et al. Detection of pathogen transmission in neonatal nurseries using DNA markers as surrogate indicators. Pediatrics 105 2 (2000) 311-315
58. Bures S., Fishbain J.T., Uyehara C.F., et al. Computer keyboards and faucet handles as reservoirs of nosocomial pathogens in the intensive care unit. Am J Infect Control 28 6 (2000) 465-471
59. Hartmann B., Benson M., Junger A., et al. Computer keyboard and mouse as a reservoir of pathogens in an intensive care unit. J Clin Monit Comput 18 1 (2004) 7-12
60. Curtis L., Cali S., Conroy L., et al. Aspergillus surveillance project at a large tertiary-care hospital. J Hosp Infect 59 3 (2005) 188-196
61. Lee L.D., Berkheiser M., Jiang Y., et al. Risk of bioaerosol contamination with Aspergillus species before and after cleaning in rooms filtered with high-efficiency particulate air filters that house patients with hematologic malignancy. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 28 9 (2007) 1066-1070
62. Pittet D., Sax H., Hugonnet S., et al. Cost implications of successful hand hygiene promotion. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 25 3 (2004) 264-266
63. Larson E.L., Quiros D., and Lin S.X. Dissemination of the CDC's Hand Hygiene Guideline and impact on infection rates. Am J Infect Control 35 10 (2007) 666-675
64. Boyce J.M., Pittet D., Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee, Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America. Association for Professionals in Infection Control, and Infectious Diseases Society of America. Hand Hygiene Task Force. Guideline for hand hygiene in health-care settings: recommendations of the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee and the HICPAC/SHEA/APIC/IDSA Hand Hygiene Task Force. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 23 12 Suppl (2002) S3-40
65. Rosenthal V.D., Guzman S., and Safdar N. Reduction in nosocomial infection with improved hand hygiene in intensive care units of a tertiary care hospital in Argentina. Am J Infect Control 33 7 (2005) 392-397
66. Pittet D., Hugonnet S., Harbarth S., et al. Effectiveness of a hospital-wide programme to improve compliance with hand hygiene. Infection Control Programme. Lancet 356 9238 (2000) 1307-1312
67. Aragon D., Sole M.L., and Brown S. Outcomes of an infection prevention project focusing on hand hygiene and isolation practices. AACN Clin Issues 16 2 (2005) 121-132
68. Eldridge N.E., Woods S.S., Bonello R.S., et al. Using the six sigma process to implement the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Guideline for Hand Hygiene in 4 intensive care units. J Gen Intern Med 21 Suppl 2 (2006) S35-S42
69. Girou E., Loyeau S., Legrand P., et al. Efficacy of handrubbing with alcohol based solution versus standard handwashing with antiseptic soap: randomized clinical trial. BMJ 325 7360 (2002) 362-366
70. Larson E.L., Aiello A.E., Bastyr J., et al. Assessment of two hand hygiene regimens for intensive care unit personnel. Crit Care Med 29 5 (2001) 944-951
71. Rupp M.E., Fitzgerald T., Puumala S., et al. Prospective, controlled, cross-over trial of alcohol-based hand gel in critical care units. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 29 1 (2008) 8-15
72. Trick W.E., Vernon M.O., Hayes R.A., et al. Impact of ring wearing on hand contamination and comparison of hand hygiene agents in a hospital. Clin Infect Dis 36 11 (2003) 1383-1390
73. Duckro A.N., Blom D.W., Lyle E.A., et al. Transfer of vancomycin-resistant Enterococci via health care worker hands. Arch Intern Med 165 3 (2005) 302-307
74. Ho P.L., and For the Hong Kong intensive care unit antimicrobial resistance study (HK-ICARE) Group. Carriage of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, ceftazidime-resistant gram-negative bacilli, and vancomycin-resistant Enterococci before and after intensive care unit admission. Crit Care Med 31 4 (2003) 1175-1182
75. Drees M., Snydman D.R., Schmid C.H., et al. Prior environmental contamination increases the risk of acquisition of vancomycin-resistant Enterococci. Clin Infect Dis 46 5 (2008) 678-685
76. Huang S., Datta R., and Platt R. Risk of acquiring antibiotic-resistant bacteria from previous room occupants. Arch Intern Med 166 (2006) 1945-1951
77. Goodman E.R., Platt R., Bass R., et al. Impact of an environmental cleaning intervention on the presence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and vancomycin-resistant Enterococci on surfaces in intensive care unit rooms. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 29 7 (2008) 593-599
78. Carling P.C., Parry M.F., Von Beheren S.M., and Healthcare Environmental Hygiene Study Group. Identifying opportunities to enhance environmental cleaning in 23 acute care hospitals. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 29 1 (2008) 1-7
79. Eckstein B.C., Adams D.A., Eckstein E.C., et al. Reduction of Clostridium difficile and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus contamination of environmental surfaces after an intervention to improve cleaning methods. BMC Infect Dis 7 (2007) 61
80. Hayden M.K., Bonten M.J., Blom D.W., et al. Reduction in acquisition of vancoycin-resistant Enterococcus after enforcement of routine environmental cleaning measures. Clin Infect Dis 42 11 (2006) 1552-1560
81. Haiduven D. Nosocomial aspergillosis and building construction. Med Mycol 47 (2009) S210-S216
82. Gniadek A., and Macura A.B. Intensive care unit environment contamination with fungi. Adv Med Sci 52 (2007) 283-287
83. Crimi P., Argellati F., Macrina G., et al. Microbiological surveillance of hospital ventilation systems in departments at high risk of nosocomial infections. J Prev Med Hyg 47 3 (2006) 105-109
84. Oren I., Haddad N., Finkelstein R., et al. Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in neutropenic patients during hospital construction: before and after chemoprophylaxis and institution of HEPA filters. Am J Hematol 66 4 (2001) 257-262
85. Stout J.E., Muder R.R., Mietzner S., et al. Role of environmental surveillance in determining the risk of hospital-acquired legionellosis: a national surveillance study with clinical correlations. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 28 7 (2007) 818-824
86. Sabriá M., Mòdol J.M., Garcia-Nuñez M., et al. Environmental cultures and hospital-acquired Legionnaires' disease: a 5-year prospective study in 20 hospitals in Catalonia, Spain. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 25 12 (2004) 1072-1076
87. Trautmann M., Halder S., Hoegel J., et al. Point-of-use water filtration reduces endemic Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections on a surgical intensive care unit. Am J Infect Control 36 6 (2008) 421-429
88. National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System. National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) System Report, data summary from January 1992 through June 2004, issued October 2004. Am J Infect Control 32 8 (2004) 470-485
89. Jernigan J.A., Titus M.G., Gröschel D.H., et al. Effectiveness of contact isolation during a hospital outbreak of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Am J Epidemiol 143 5 (1996) 496-504
90. Haley R.W., Cushion N.B., Tenover F.C., et al. Eradication of endemic methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections from a neonatal intensive care unit. J Infect Dis 171 3 (1995) 614-624
91. Safdar N., Marx J., Meyer N.A., et al. Effectiveness of preemptive barrier precautions in controlling nosocomial colonization and infection by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a burn unit. Am J Infect Control 34 8 (2006) 476-483
92. Mangini E., Segal-Maurer S., Burns J., et al. Impact of contact and droplet precautions on the incidence of hospital-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 28 11 (2007) 1261-1266
93. Rubinovitch B., and Pittet D. Screening for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in the endemic hospital: What have we learned?. J Hosp Infect 47 1 (2001) 9-18
94. Lucet J.C., Paoletti X., Lolom I., et al. Successful long-term program for controlling methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in intensive care units. Intensive Care Med 31 8 (2005) 1051-1057
95. Huang S.S., Yokoe D.S., Hinrichsen V.L., et al. Impact of routine intensive care unit surveillance cultures and resultant barrier precautions on hospital-wide methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Clin Infect Dis 43 8 (2006) 971-978
96. Muto C.A., Jernigan J.A., Ostrowsky B.E., et al. SHEA guideline for preventing nosocomial transmission of multidrug-resistant strains of Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 24 5 (2003) 362-386
97. Calfee D.P., Giannetta E.T., Durbin L.J., et al. Control of endemic vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus among inpatients at a university hospital. Clin Infect Dis 37 3 (2003) 326-332
98. Boyce J.M., Mermel L.A., Zervos M.J., et al. Controlling vancomycin-resistant Enterococci. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 16 11 (1995) 634-637
99. Ostrowsky B.E., Trick W.E., Sohn A.H., et al. Control of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus in health care facilities in a region. N Engl J Med 344 19 (2001) 1427-1433
100. Perencevich E.N., Fisman D.N., Lipsitch M., et al. Projected benefits of active surveillance for vancomycin-resistant Enterococci in intensive care units. Clin Infect Dis 38 8 (2004) 1108-1115
101. Kurup A., Chlebicki M.P., Ling M.L., et al. Control of a hospital-wide vancomycin-resistant Enterococci outbreak. Am J Infect Control 36 3 (2008) 206-211
102. Mascini E.M., Troelstar A., Beitsma M., et al. Genotyping and preemptive isolation to control an outbreak of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium. Clin Infect Dis 42 6 (2006) 739-746
103. Byers K.E., Anglim A.M., Anneski C.J., et al. A hospital epidemic of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus: risk factors and control. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 22 3 (2001) 140-147
104. Siegel J.D., Rhinehart E., Jackson M., et al. 2007 guideline for isolation precautions: preventing transmission of infectious agents in healthcare settings. Available at:. http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dhqp/pdf/isolation2007.pdf Accessed January 13, 2009
105. Robicsek A., Beaumont J.L., Paule S.M., et al. Universal surveillance for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in 3 affiliated hospitals. Ann Intern Med 148 6 (2008) 409-418
106. Harbarth S., Fankhauser C., Schrenzel J., et al. Universal screening for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus at hospital admission and nosocomial infection in surgical patients. JAMA 299 10 (2008) 1149-1157
107. Harbarth S., Sax H., Frankhauser-Rodriguez C., et al. Evaluating the probability of previously unknown carriage of MRSA at hospital admission. Am J Med 119 3 (2006) e15-e23 275
108. Hidron A.I., Kourbatova E.V., Halvosa J.S., et al. Risk factors for colonization with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in patients admitted to an urban hospital: emergence of community-associated MRSA nasal carriage. Clin Infect Dis 41 2 (2005) 159-166
109. Karchmer T.B., Durbin L.J., Simonton B.M., et al. Cost-effectiveness of active surveillance cultures and contact/droplet precautions for control of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J Hosp Infect 51 2 (2002) 126-132
110. Muto C.A., Giannetta E.T., Durbin L.J., et al. Cost-effectiveness of perirectal surveillance cultures for controlling vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 23 8 (2002) 429-435
111. Tenorio A., Badri S., Sahgal N., et al. Effectiveness of gloves in the prevention of hand carriage of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus species by health care workers after patient care. Clin Infect Dis 32 (2001) 826-829
112. Hayden M., Blom D., Lyle E., et al. Risk of hand or glove contamination after contact with patients colonized with vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus or the colonized patients' environment. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 29 2 (2008) 149-154
113. Slaughter S., Hayden M., Nathan C., et al. A comparison of the effect of universal use of gloves and gowns with that of glove use alone on acquisition of vancomycin-resistant Enterococci in a medical intensive care unit. Ann Intern Med 125 6 (1996) 448-456
114. Puzniak L.A., Leet T., Mayfield J., et al. To gown or not to gown: the effect on acquisition of vancomycin-resistant Enterococci. Clin Infect Dis 35 1 (2002) 18-25
115. Srinivasan A., Song X., Ross T., et al. A prospective study to determine whether cover gowns in addition to gloves decrease nosocomial transmission of vancomycin-resistant Enterococci in an intensive care unit. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 23 8 (2002) 424-428
116. Puzniak L.A., Gillespie K.N., Leet T., et al. A cost-benefit analysis of gown use in controlling vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus transmission: Is it worth the price?. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 25 5 (2004) 418-424
117. Montecalvo M.A., Jarvis W.R., Uman J., et al. Costs and savings associated with infection control measures that reduced transmission of vancomycin-resistant Enterococci in an endemic setting. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 22 7 (2001) 437-442
118. Vernon M.O., Hayden M.K., Trick W.E., et al. Chlorhexidine gluconate to cleanse patients in a medical intensive care unit: the effectiveness of source control to reduce the bioburden of vancomycin-resistant Enterococci. Arch Intern Med 166 3 (2006) 306-312
119. Bleasdale S.C., Trick W.E., Gonzalez I.M., et al. Effectiveness of chlorhexidine bathing to reduce catheter-associated bloodstream infections in medical intensive care unit patients. Arch Intern Med 167 19 (2007) 2073-2079
120. Wendt C., Schinke S., Württemberger M., et al. Value of whole-body washing with chlorhexidine for the eradication of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind clinical trial. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 28 9 (2007) 1036-1043
121. Simor A.E., Phillips E., McGeer A., et al. Randomized controlled trial of chlorhexidine gluconate for washing, intranasal mupirocin, and rifampin and doxycycline versus no treatment for the eradication of methicillin-resistant Staphylococus aureus colonization. Clin Infect Dis 44 2 (2007) 178-185
122. Ridenour G., Lampen R., Federspiel J., et al. Selective use of intranasal mupirocin and chlorhexidine bathing and the incidence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus colonization and infection among intensive care unit patients. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 28 10 (2007) 1155-1161
123. Buehlmann M., Frei R., Fenner L., et al. Highly effective regimen for decolonization of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus carriers. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 29 6 (2008) 510-516
124. Hansen D., Patzke P.I., Werfel U., et al. Success of MRSA eradication in hospital routine: depends on compliance. Infection 35 4 (2007) 260-264
125. Chastre J., and Fagon J.Y. Ventilator-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 165 7 (2002) 867-903
126. Edwards J.R., Peterson K.D., Andrus M.L., et al. National Healthcare Safety Network (NHSN) Report, data summary for 2006 through 2007, issued November 2008. Am J Infect Control 36 (2008) 609-626
127. Hyllienmark P., Gårdlund B., Persson J.O., et al. Nosocomial pneumonia in the ICU: a prospective cohort study. Scand J Infect Dis 39 8 (2007) 676-682
128. Rello J., Ollendorf D.A., Oster G., et al. Epidemiology and outcomes of ventilator-associated pneumonia in a large US database. Chest 122 6 (2002) 2115-2121
129. American Thoracic Society; Infectious Diseases Society of America. Guidelines for the management of adults with hospital-acquired, ventilator-associated, and healthcare-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 171 4 (2005) 388-416
130. Coffin S.E., Klompas M., Classen D., et al. Strategies to prevent ventilator-associated pneumonia in acute care hospitals. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 29 Suppl 1 (2008) S31-S40
131. Orozco-Levi M., Torres A., Ferrer M., et al. Semirecumbent position protects from pulmonary aspiration but not completely from gastroesophageal reflux in mechanically ventilated patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 152 4 Pt 1 (1995) 1387-1390
132. Ferrer R., and Artigas A. Clinical review: non-antibiotic strategies for preventing ventilator-associated pneumonia. Crit Care 6 1 (2002) 45-51
133. van Nieuwenhoven C.A., Vandenbroucke-Grauls C., van Tiel F.H., et al. Feasibility and effects of the semirecumbent position to prevent ventilator-associated pneumonia: a randomized study. Crit Care Med 34 2 (2006) 396-402
134. Bouza E., Jesús Pérez M., Muñoz P., et al. Continuous Aspiration of Subglottic Secretions (CASS) in the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia in the postoperative period of major heart surgery. Chest 134 (2008) 938-946
135. Vallés J., Artigas A., Rello J., et al. Continuous aspiration of subglottic secretions in preventing ventilator-associated pneumonia. Ann Intern Med 122 3 (1995) 179-186
136. Diaz E., Rodríguez A.H., and Rello J. Ventilator-associated pneumonia: issues related to the artificial airway. Respir Care 50 7 (2005) 900-906
137. Rello J., Soñora R., Jubert P., et al. Pneumonia in intubated patients: role of respiratory airway care. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 154 1 (1996) 111-115
138. Niël-Weise B.S., Snoeren R.L., and van den Broek P.J. Policies for endotracheal suctioning of patients receiving mechanical ventilation: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 28 5 (2007) 531-536
139. Kollef M.H., Afessa B., Anzueto A., et al. Silver-coated endotracheal tubes and incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia: the NASCENT randomized trial. JAMA 300 7 (2008) 805-813
140. Schweickert W.D., Gehlbach B.K., Pohlman A.S., et al. Daily interruption of sedative infusions and complications of critical illness in mechanically ventilated patients. Crit Care Med 32 6 (2004) 1272-1276
141. Kress J.P., Pohlman A.S., O'Connor M.F., et al. Daily interruption of sedative infusions in critically ill patients undergoing mechanical ventilation. N Engl J Med 342 20 (2000) 1471-1477
142. Quenot J.P., Ladoire S., Devoucoux F., et al. Effect of a nurse-implemented sedation protocol on the incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Crit Care Med 35 9 (2007) 2031-2036
143. Fourrier F., Dubois D., Pronnier P., et al. Effect of gingival and dental plaque antiseptic decontamination on nosocomial infections acquired in the intensive care unit: a double-blind placebo-controlled multicenter study. Crit Care Med 33 8 (2005) 1728-1735
144. Kola A., and Gastmeier P. Efficacy of oral chlorhexidine in preventing lower respiratory tract infections. Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Hosp Infect 66 3 (2007) 207-216
145. Liberati A., D'Amico R., Pifferi, et al. Antibiotic prophylaxis to reduce respiratory tract infections and mortality in adults receiving intensive care. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 1 (2004) CD000022
146. Wenzel R.P., and Edmond M.B. The impact of hospital-acquired bloodstream infections. Emerg Infect Dis 7 2 (2001) 174-177
147. Digiovine B., Chenoweth C., Watts C., et al. The attributable mortality and costs of primary nosocomial bloodstream infections in the intensive care unit. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 160 3 (1999) 976-981
148. Laupland K.B., Lee H., Gregson D.B., et al. Cost of intensive care unit-acquired bloodstream infections. J Hosp Infect 63 2 (2006) 124-132
149. Rello J., Ochagavia A., Sabanes E., et al. Evaluation of outcome of intravenous catheter-related infections in critically ill patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 162 3 Pt 1 (2000) 1027-1030
150. Garrouste-Orgeas M., Timsit J.F., Tafflet M., et al. Excess risk of death from intensive care unit-acquired nosocomial bloodstream infections: a reappraisal. Clin Infect Dis 42 8 (2006) 1118-1126
151. O'Grady N.P., Alexander M., Dellinger E.P., et al. Guidelines for the prevention of intravascular catheter-related infections. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 23 12 (2002) 759-769
152. Holton D., Paton S., Conly J., et al. Central venous catheter-associated bloodstream infections occurring in Canadian intensive care units: a six-month cohort study. Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol 17 3 (2006) 169-176
153. Laupland K.B., Zygun D.A., Davies H.D., et al. Population-based assessment of intensive care unit-acquired bloodstream infections in adults: incidence, risk factors, and associated mortality rate. Crit Care Med 30 11 (2002) 2462-2467
154. Jamulitrat S., Meknavin U., and Thongpiyapoom S. Factors affecting mortality outcome and risk of developing nosocomial bloodstream infection. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 15 3 (1994) 163-170
155. Safdar N., and Maki D.G. The pathogenesis of catheter-related bloodstream infection with noncuffed short-term central venous catheters. Intensive Care Med 30 1 (2004) 62-67
156. Berenholtz S.M., Pronovost P.J., Lipsett P.A., et al. Eliminating catheter-related bloodstream infections in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 32 10 (2004) 2014-2020
157. Racco M., and Horn K. Central catheter infections: use of a multidisciplinary team to find simple solutions. Crit Care Nurse 27 1 (2007) 80 78-9
158. Marschall J., Mermel L.A., Classen D., et al. Strategies to prevent central line-associated bloodstream infections in acute care hospitals. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 29 Suppl 1 (2008) S22-S30
159. Brunelle D. Impact of a dedicated infusion therapy team on the reduction of catheter-related nosocomial infections. J Infus Nurs 26 6 (2003) 362-366
160. Meier P.A., Fredrickson M., Catney M., et al. Impact of a dedicated intravenous therapy team on nosocomial bloodstream infections rates. Am J Infect Control 26 4 (1998) 388-392
161. Crnich C.J., and Maki D.G. The promise of novel technology for the prevention of intravascular device-related bloodstream infection. I. Pathogenesis and short-term devices. Clin Infect Dis 34 9 (2002) 1232-1242
162. O'Grady N.P., Alexander M., Dellinger E.P., et al. Guidelines for the prevention of intravascular catheter-related infections. Clin Infect Dis 35 (2002) 1281-1307
163. Ramritu P., Halton K., Collignon P., et al. A systematic review comparing the relative effectiveness of antimicrobial-coated catheters in intensive care units. Am J Infect Control 36 2 (2008) 104-117
164. Salzman M.B., Isenberg H.D., and Rubin L.G. Use of disinfectants to reduce microbial contamination of hubs of vascular catheters. J Clin Microbiol 31 3 (1993) 475-479
165. Randolph A.G., Cook D.J., Gonzales C.A., et al. Benefit of heparin in central venous and pulmonary artery catheters: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Chest 113 1 (1998) 165-171
166. Kethireddy S., and Safdar N. Urokinase lock or flush solution for prevention of bloodstream infections associated with central venous catheters for chemotherapy: a meta-analysis of prospective randomized trials. J Vasc Access 9 1 (2008) 51-57
167. Safdar N., and Maki D.G. Use of vancomycin-containing lock or flush solutions for prevention of bloodstream infection associated with central venous access devices: a meta-analysis of prospective, randomized trials. Clin Infect Dis 43 4 (2006) 474-484
168. Richards M.J., Edwards J.R., Culver D.H., et al. Nosocomial infections in combined medical-surgical intensive care units in the United States. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 21 8 (2000) 510-515
169. Tambyah P.A., Knasinski V., and Maki D.G. The direct costs of nosocomial catheter-associated urinary tract infection in the era of managed care. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 23 1 (2002) 27-31
170. Clec'h C., Schwebel C., Français A., et al. Does catheter-associated urinary tract infection increase mortality in critically ill patients?. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 28 12 (2007) 1367-1373
171. Laupland K.B., Bagshaw S.M., Gregson D.B., et al. Intensive care unit-acquired urinary tract infections in a regional critical care system. Crit Care 9 2 (2005) R60-R65
172. Savas L., Guvel S., Onlen Y., et al. Nosocomial urinary tract infections: micro-organisms, antibiotic sensitivities and risk factors. West Indian Med J 55 3 (2006) 188-193
173. van der Kooi T.I., de Boer A.S., Manniën J., et al. Incidence and risk factors of device-associated infections and associated mortality at the intensive care in the Dutch surveillance system. Intensive Care Med 33 2 (2007) 271-278
174. Bochicchio G.V., Joshi M., Shih D., et al. Reclassification of urinary tract infections in critically ill trauma patients: a time-dependent analysis. Surg Infect (Larchmt) 4 4 (2003) 379-385
175. Apisarnthanarak A., Rutjanawech S., Wichansawakun S., et al. Initial inappropriate urinary catheters use in a tertiary-care center: incidence, risk factors, and outcomes. Am J Infect Control 35 9 (2007) 594-599
176. Apisarnthanarak A., Thongphubeth K., Sirinvaravong S., et al. Effectiveness of multifaceted hospitalwide quality improvement programs featuring an intervention to remove unnecessary urinary catheters at a tertiary care center in Thailand. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 28 7 (2007) 791-798
177. Lo E., Nicolle L., Classen D., et al. Strategies to prevent catheter-associated urinary tract infections in acute care hospitals. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 29 Suppl 1 (2008) S41-S50
178. Brosnahan J., Jull A., and Tracy C. Types of urethral catheters for management of short-term voiding problems in hospitalized adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 1 (2004) CD004013
179. Johnson J.R., Kuskowski M.A., and Wilt T.J. Systematic review: antimicrobial urinary catheters to prevent catheter-associated urinary tract infection in hospitalized patients. Ann Intern Med 144 2 (2006) 116-126
180. Kenneally C., Rosini J.M., Skrupky L.P., et al. Analysis of 30-day mortality for Clostridium difficile-associated disease in the ICU setting. Chest 132 (2007) 418-424
181. Dubberke E.R., Reske K.A., Olsen M.A., et al. Short- and long-term attributable costs of Clostridium difficile-associated disease in nonsurgical inpatients. Clin Infect Dis 46 4 (2008) 497-504
182. Redelings M.D., Sorvillo F., and Mascola L. Increase in Clostridium difficile-related mortality rates, United States, 1999-2004. Emerg Infect Dis 13 9 (2007) 1417-1419
183. Lawrence S.J., Puzniak L.A., Shadel B.N., et al. Clostridium difficile in the intensive care unit: epidemiology, costs, and colonization pressure. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 28 2 (2007) 123-130
184. Dubberke E.R., Reske K.A., Olsen M.A., et al. Evaluation of Clostridium difficile-associated disease pressure as a risk factor for C. difficile-associated disease. Arch Intern Med 167 (2007) 1092-1097
185. Dubberke E.R., Reske K.A., Yan Y., et al. Clostridium difficile-associated disease in a setting of endemicity: identification of novel risk factors. Clin Infect Dis 45 (2007) 1543-1549
186. Pépin J., Saheb N., Coulombe M.A., et al. Emergence of fluoroquinolones as the predominant risk factor for Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea: a cohort study during an epidemic in Quebec. Clin Infect Dis 41 9 (2005) 1254-1260
187. Dial S., Delaney J.A., Barkun A.N., et al. Use of gastric acid-suppressive agents and the risk of community-acquired Clostridium difficile-associated disease. JAMA 294 23 (2005) 2989-2995
188. Kyne L., Merry C., O'Connell B., et al. Community-acquired Clostridium difficile infection. J Infect 36 3 (1998) 287-288
189. Bignardi G.E. Risk factors for Clostridium difficile infection. J Hosp Infect 40 1 (1998) 1-15
190. Kelly C.P., Pothoulakis C., and LaMont J.T. Clostridium difficile colitis. N Engl J Med 330 4 (1994) 257-262
191. Gerding D.N., Muto C.A., and Owens R.C. Measures to control and prevent Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis 46 Suppl 1 (2008) S43-S49
192. Johnson S., Gerding D.N., Olson M.M., et al. Prospective, controlled study of vinyl glove use to interrupt Clostridium difficile nosocomial transmission. Am J Med 88 2 (1990) 137-140
193. Vonberg R.P., Kuijper E.J., Wilcox M.H., et al. Infection control measures to limit the spread of Clostridium difficile. Clin Microbiol Infect 14 Suppl 5 (2008) 2-20
194. McNulty C., Logan M., Donald I.P., et al. Successful control of Clostridium difficile infection in an elderly care unit through use of a restrictive antibiotic policy. J Antimicrob Chemother 40 5 (1997) 707-711
195. Climo M.W., Israel D.S., Wong E.S., et al. Hospital-wide restriction of clindamycin: effect on the incidence of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea and cost. Ann Intern Med 128 12 Pt 1 (1998) 989-995
196. Starks I., Ayub G., Walley G., et al. Single-dose cefuroxime with gentamicin reduces Clostridium difficile-associated disease in hip-fracture patients. J Hosp Infect 70 1 (2008) 21-26
197. Carignan A., Allard C., Pépin J., et al. Risk of Clostridium difficile infection after perioperative antibacterial prophylaxis before and during an outbreak of infection due to a hypervirulent strain. Clin Infect Dis 46 (2008) 1838-1843
198. Dubberke E., Gerding D.N., Classen D., et al. Strategies to prevent clostridium difficile infections in acute care hospitals. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 29 Suppl 1 (2008) S81-S92
199. Dellit T.H., Owens R.C., McGowan J.E., et al. Infectious Diseases Society of America and the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America guidelines for developing an institutional program to enhance antimicrobial stewardship. Clin Infect Dis 15 44 (2007) 159-177
200. Bryce E.A., and Smith J.A. Focused microbiological surveillance and gram-negative beta-lactamase-mediated resistance in an intensive care unit. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 16 6 (1995) 331-334
201. Rhomberg P.R., Fritsche T.R., Sader H.S., et al. Antimicrobial susceptibility pattern comparisons among intensive care unit and general ward gram-negative isolates from the Meropenem Yearly Susceptibility Test Information Collection Program (USA). Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 56 1 (2006) 57-62
202. Barbosa T.M., and Levy S.B. The impact of antibiotic use on resistance development and persistence. Drug Resist Updat 3 5 (2000) 303-311
203. McGowan Jr. J.E. Antimicrobial resistance in hospital organisms and its relation to antibiotic use. Rev Infect Dis 5 6 (1983) 1033-1048
204. Gaynes R. The impact of antimicrobial use on the emergence of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria in hospitals. Infect Dis Clin North Am 11 4 (1997) 757-765
205. Monroe S., and Polk R. Antimicrobial use and bacterial resistance. Curr Opin Microbiol 3 5 (2000) 496-501
206. Archibald L., Phillips L., Monnet D., et al. Antimicrobial resistance in isolates from inpatients and outpatients in the United States: increasing importance of the intensive care unit. Clin Infect Dis 24 2 (1997) 211-215
207. Lutters M., Harbarth S., Janssens J.P., et al. Effect of a comprehensive, multidisciplinary, educational program on the use of antibiotics in a geriatric university hospital. J Am Geriatr Soc 52 1 (2004) 112-116
208. Davey P., Brown E., Fenelon L., et al. Interventions to improve antibiotic prescribing practices for hospital inpatients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 4 (2005) CD003543
209. Buising K.L., Thursky K.A., Robertson M.B., et al. Electronic antibiotic stewardship-reduced consumption of broad-spectrum antibiotics using a computerized antimicrobial approval system in a hospital setting. J Antimicrob Chemother 62 (2008) 608-616
210. Carling P., Fung T., Killion A., et al. Favorable impact of a multidisciplinary antibiotic management program conducted during 7 years. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 24 9 (2003) 699-706
211. Ansari F., Gray K., Nathwani D., et al. Outcomes of an intervention to improve hospital antibiotic prescribing: interrupted time series with segmented regression analysis. J Antimicrob Chemother 52 5 (2003) 842-848
212. Rüttimann S., Keck B., Hartmeier C., et al. Long-term antibiotic cost savings from a comprehensive intervention program in a medical department of a university-affiliated teaching hospital. Clin Infect Dis 38 3 (2004) 348-356
213. Ozkurt Z., Erol S., Kadanali A., et al. Changes in antibiotic use, cost and consumption after an antibiotic restriction policy applied by infectious disease specialists. Jpn J Infect Dis 58 6 (2005) 338-343
214. Mach R., Vlcek J., Prusova M., et al. Impact of a multidisciplinary approach on antibiotic consumption, cost and microbial resistance in a Czech hospital. Pharm World Sci 29 5 (2007) 565-572
215. Feucht C.L., and Rice L.B. An interventional program to improve antibiotic use. Ann Pharmacother 37 5 (2003) 646-651