The evolution of bipedal postures in varanoid lizards

Biological Journal of the Linnean Society

Volumn 97, Issue 3, 2009, Pages 652-663

  Schuett, Gordon W ^a   Reiserer, Randall S ^b   Earley, Ryan L ^c  

^a GEORGIA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA   (United States)

Author keywords

Ancestral character reconstruction; Body size; Comparative evolutionary analysis; Locomotion; Selective regimes; Tetrapod vertebrates; Varanus

Indexed keywords

ANCESTRY; BODY SIZE; COMPARATIVE STUDY; EVOLUTION; LIZARD; LOCOMOTION; PHYLOGENY; TETRAPOD;

AVES; DINOSAURIA; HELODERMA; LANTHANOTUS BORNEENSIS; MAMMALIA; ODATRIA; REPTILIA; SQUAMATA; TETRAPODA; THEROPODA; VARANIDAE; VARANOIDEA; VARANUS; VERTEBRATA;

EID: 67649872646     PISSN: 00244066     EISSN: 10958312     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.2009.01227.x     Document Type: Article

References (64)

1. Ackerman J. 2006. The downside of upright. National Geographic 210 : 126 145.
2. Aerts P, Van Damme R, D'Aout K, Van Hooydonck B. 2003. Bipedalism in lizards: whole-body modelling reveals a possible spandrel. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B, Biological Sciences 358 : 1525 1533. (Pubitemid 37171664)
3. Alexander RM. 2006. Dinosaur biomechanics. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 273 : 1849 1855. (Pubitemid 46939920)
4. Amer SAM, Kumazawa Y. 2008. Timing of mtDNA gene rearrangement and intercontinental dispersal of varanid lizards. Genes & Genetic Systems 83 : 275 280.
5. Ast J. 2001. Mitochondrial DNA evidence and evolution in Varanoidea (Squamata). Cladistics 17 : 211 226. (Pubitemid 34175738)
6. Auffenberg W. 1981. The behavioral ecology of the Komodo monitor. Gainesville, FL : University Presses of Florida.
7. Auffenberg W. 1988. Gray's monitor lizard. Gainesville, FL : University Presses of Florida.
8. Beck DD. 2005. Biology of Gila monsters and beaded lizards. Berkeley, CA : University of California Press.
9. Bennett D. 1998. Monitor lizards: natural history, biology & husbandry. Edition Chimaira. Meckenheim : Warlich Druck.
10. Bergmann PJ, Meyers JJ, Irschick DJ. 2008. Directional evolution of stockiness coevolves with ecology and locomotion in lizards. Evolution 63 : 215 227.
11. Blob R. 2000. Interspecific scaling of the hindlimb skeleton in lizards, crocodilians, felids, and canids: does limb bone shape correlate with limb posture? Journal of Zoology (London) 250 : 507 531. (Pubitemid 30244496)
12. Böhme W. 2003. Checklist of the living monitor lizards of the world (family Varanidae). Zoologische Verhandellingen 341 : 1 43.
13. Bush JWM, Hu DL. 2006. Walking on water: biolocomotion at the interface. Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics 38 : 339 369. (Pubitemid 43240180)
14. Butler MA, King AA. 2004. Phylogenetic comparative analysis: a modeling approach for adaptive evolution. American Naturalist 164 : 683 695. (Pubitemid 40099523)
15. Carpenter CC, Gillingham JC, Murphy JB, Mitchell LA. 1976. A further analysis of the combat ritual of Varanus gilleni. Herpetologica 32 : 35 40.
16. Chatterjee S, Templin RJ. 2007. Biplane wing planform and flight performance of the feathered dinosaur Microraptor gui. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 104 : 1576 1580. (Pubitemid 46214632)
17. Clemente CJ, Withers PC, Thompson G, Lloyd L. 2008. Why go bipedal? Locomotion and morphology in Australian agamid lizards. Journal of Experimental Biology 211 : 2058 2065.
18. Conrad JL, Rieppel O, Grande L. 2008. Re-assessment of varanid evolution based on new data from Saniwa ensidens Leidy, 1870 (Squamata, Reptilia). American Museum Novitates 3630 : 1 15.
19. Earley RL, Attum O, Eason P. 2002. Varanid combat: perspectives from game theory. Amphibia-Reptilia 23 : 469 485. (Pubitemid 36257665)
20. Fitch AJ, Goodman AE, Donnellan SC. 2006. A molecular phylogeny of the Australian monitor lizards (Squamata: Varanidae) inferred from mitochondrial DNA sequences. Australian Journal of Zoology 54 : 253 269. (Pubitemid 44221775)
21. Garland T Jr., Bennett AF, Rezende EL. 2005. Phylogenetic approaches in comparative physiology. Journal of Experimental Biology 208 : 3015 3035. (Pubitemid 41345680)
22. Gould GC, MacFadden BJ. 2004. Gigantism, dwarfism, and Cope's rule: 'Nothing in evolution makes sense without a phylogeny Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 285 : 219 237. (Pubitemid 40518657)
23. Greene HW. 1986. Diet and arboreal adaptation of the emerald monitor, Varanus prasinus, with comments on the study of adaptation. Fieldiana 31 : 1 12.
24. Greene HW. 1988. Antipredator mechanisms in reptiles. In : Gans C, Huey RB, eds. Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 16, Ecology B. New York, NY : Alan R. Liss, 1 152.
25. Hansen TF. 1997. Stabilizing selection and the comparative analysis of adaptation. Evolution 51 : 1341 1351. (Pubitemid 27491132)
26. Head JJ, FLS PMB, Rayfield EJ. 2009. Neurocranial ostelogy and systematic relationships of Varanus (Magalania) prisca Owen, 1859 (Squamata: Varanidae). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 155 : 445 457.
27. Hsieh ST. 2003. Three-dimensional hindlimb kinematics of water running in the plumed basilisk lizard (Basiliscus plumifrons). Journal of Experimental Biology 206 : 4363 4377. (Pubitemid 38024799)
28. Huelsenbeck JP, Bollback JP, Levine AM. 2002. Inferring the root of the phylogenetic tree. Systematic Biology 51 : 32 43. (Pubitemid 35169406)
29. Hutchinson JR. 2006. The evolution of locomotion in archosaurs. Competes Rendus Paleoevolution 5 : 519 530.
30. Hutchinson JR, Gatesy SM. 2006. Dinosaur locomotion: beyond the bones. Nature 440 : 292 294.
31. Jennings WB, Pianka RR. 2004. Tempo and timing of the Australian Varanus radiation. In : Pianka ER, King DR, eds. Varanoid lizards of the world. Bloomington, IN : Indiana University Press, 77 87.
32. King D, Green B. 1999. Monitors: the biology of varanid lizards, 2nd edn. Malabar, FL : Krieger Publishing.
33. Kumazawa Y. 2007. Mitochondrial genes from major lizard families suggest their phylogenetic relationships and ancient radiations. Gene 388 : 19 26. (Pubitemid 46014009)
34. Lee MSY. 2005. Squamate phylogeny, taxon sampling, and data congruence. Organisms, Diversity and Evolution 5 : 25 45. (Pubitemid 40451700)
35. Lewis PO. 2001. A likelihood approach to estimating phylogeny from discrete morphological character data. Systematic Biology 50 : 913 925.
36. Maddison DR, Maddison WP. 2000. MacClade 4: analysis of phylogeny and character evolution. Sunderland, MA : Sinauer and Associates.
37. Maddison WP, Maddison DR. 2006. Mesquite: a modular system for evolutionary analysis, Version 1.12. Available at: http://mesquiteproject.org
38. Molnar RE. 2004. The long and honorable history of monitors and their kin. In : Pianka ER, King DR, eds. Varanoid lizards of the world. Bloomington, IN : Indiana University Press, 10 67.
39. Molnar RE, Pianka ER. 2004. Biogeography and phylogeny of varanoids. In : Pianka ER, King DR, eds. Varanoid lizards of the world. Bloomington, IN : Indiana University Press, 67 76.
40. Murphy JB, Ciofi C, de La Panhouse C, Walsh T. 2002. Komodo dragons. Washington, DC : Smithsonian Institution Press.
41. Murphy JB, Lamoreaux WE. 1978. Threatening behavior in Mertens' water monitor Varanus mertensi (Sauria: Varanidae). Herpetologica 34 : 202 205.
42. Nicolas G, Multon F, Berillon G, Marchal F. 2007. From bone to plausible bipedal locomotion using inverse kinematics. Journal of Biomechanics 40 : 1048 1057. (Pubitemid 46357544)
43. Pagel M. 1999. The maximum likelihood approach to reconstructing ancestral character states of discrete characters on phylogenies. Systematic Biology 48 : 612 622. (Pubitemid 129479567)
44. Pianka ER. 1995. Evolution of body size: varanid lizards as a model system. American Naturalist 146 : 398 414. (Pubitemid 26448610)
45. Pianka ER. 2004. Evolution of body size and reproductive tactics. In : Pianka ER, King DR, eds. Varanoid lizards of the world. Bloomington, IN : Indiana University Press, 549 555.
46. Pianka ER, King DR, eds. 2004. Varanoid lizards of the world. Bloomington, IN : Indiana University Press.
47. Pregill GK, Gauthier JA, Greene HW. 1986. The evolution of helodermatid squamates, with a description of a new taxon and an overview of Varanoidea. Transactions of the San Diego Society of Natural History 21 : 167 202.
48. Russell AP, Bels V. 2001. Biomechanics and kinematics of limb-based locomotion in lizards: review, synthesis and prospectus. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A 131 : 89 112. (Pubitemid 34072127)
49. Schuett GW, Gergus EWA, Kraus F. 2000. Phylogenetic correlation between male-male fighting and mode of prey subjugation in snakes. Acta Ethologica 4 : 31 49. (Pubitemid 32907946)
50. Schulte JA II., Melville J, Larson A. 2003. Molecular phylogenetic evidence for ancient divergence of lizard taxa on either side of Wallace's Line. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 270 : 597 603. (Pubitemid 36359734)
51. Senut B. 2006. Bipédie et climat. Comptes Rendus Paleoevolution 5 : 89 98.
52. Skoyles JR. 2006. Human balance, the evolution of bipedalism and dysequilibrium syndrome. Medical Hypotheses 66 : 1060 1068.
53. Smith KT, Bhullar BS, Holroyd PA. 2008. Earliest African record of the Varanus stem-clade (Squamata: Varanidae) from the early Oligocene of Egypt. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 28 : 909 913.
54. Snyder RC. 1962. Adaptations for bipedal locomotion of lizards. American Zoologist 2 : 191 203.
55. Sockol MD, Raichlen DA, Pontzer H. 2007. Chimpanzee locomotor energetics and the origin of human bipedalism. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 104 : 12265 12269. (Pubitemid 47206126)
56. Springer MS, Murphy WJ. 2007. Mammalian evolution and biomedicine: new views from phylogeny. Biological Review 82 : 375 392. (Pubitemid 47052387)
57. Thompson GG, Clemente CJ, Withers PC, Fry BG, Norman JA. 2008. Is body shape of varanid lizards linked with retreat choice? Australian Journal of Zoology 56 : 351 362.
58. Thompson G, Withers P. 1997. Comparative morphology of western Australian varanid lizards (Squamata: Varanidae). Journal of Morphology 233 : 127 152. (Pubitemid 27295475)
59. Thompson GG, Withers PC, Thompson SA. 1992. The combat ritual of two monitor lizards, Varanus caudolineatus and Varanus gouldii. Western Australia Naturalist 19 : 21 25.
60. Thorpe SKS, Holder RL, Crompton RH. 2007. Origin of human bipedalism as an adaptation for locomotion on flexible branches. Science 316 : 1328 1331. (Pubitemid 46871652)
61. Townsend TM, Larson A, Edwards L, Macey JR. 2004. Molecular phylogenetics of Squamata: the position of snakes, amphisbaenians, and dibambids, and the root of the squamate tree. Systematic Biology 53 : 735 757. (Pubitemid 39568276)
62. Turner AH, Pol D, Clarke JA, Erickson GM, Norell MA. 2007. A basal dromaesaurid and size evolution preceding avian flight. Science 317 : 1378 1381. (Pubitemid 47417475)
63. Vallender EJ, Lahn BT. 2004. Positive selection on the human genome. Human Molecular Genetics 13 : R245 R254.
64. Wroe S. 2002. A review of terrestrial mammalian and reptilian carnivore ecology in Australian fossil faunas, and factors influencing their diversity: the myth of reptilian domination and its broader ramifications. Australian Journal of Zoology 50 : 1 24. (Pubitemid 34463538)