Healthcare-associated infections: Epidemiology, prevention, and therapy

Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine

Volumn 76, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 84-94

  Doshi Rupali K , Rupali K ^a   Patel, Gopi ^a   MacKay, Richard ^a   Wallach, Frances ^a  

^a MOUNT SINAI SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Acinetobacter baumannii; Bloodstream infection; Clostridium difficile; Extended spectrum lactamase; Healthcare associated infection; Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus; Multidrugresistant gram negative bacteria; Nosocomial; Quality improvement; Urinary tract infection

Indexed keywords

AMINOGLYCOSIDE ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; AZTREONAM; BACTERIAL TOXIN; BETA LACTAM ANTIBIOTIC; CARBAPENEM; CEFEPIME; CEFTAZIDIME; CEPHALOSPORIN; CHLORHEXIDINE; CLINDAMYCIN; COTRIMOXAZOLE; DAPTOMYCIN; EXTENDED SPECTRUM BETA LACTAMASE; IMIPENEM; LINEZOLID; MEROPENEM; METRONIDAZOLE; PENICILLIN G; QUINOLINE DERIVED ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; RIFAMPICIN; SULTAMICILLIN; TETRACYCLINE; VANCOMYCIN;

ACINETOBACTER INFECTION; ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; ARTICLE; BACTERIAL ENDOCARDITIS; BACTERIAL INFECTION; BACTERIAL PNEUMONIA; BACTERIAL TRANSMISSION; BACTERIUM CULTURE; BLOODSTREAM INFECTION; CATHETER INFECTION; CENTRAL VENOUS CATHETERIZATION; CLINICAL TRIAL; CLOSTRIDIUM DIFFICILE; CLOSTRIDIUM DIFFICILE INFECTION; DEVICE REMOVAL; DRUG DOSE REDUCTION; DRUG MEGADOSE; GRAM NEGATIVE BACTERIUM; GRAM NEGATIVE INFECTION; HOSPITAL INFECTION; HUMAN; INFECTION CONTROL; INFECTION PREVENTION; INFECTION RATE; INFECTION RISK; METHICILLIN RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS INFECTION; MINIMUM INHIBITORY CONCENTRATION; MORTALITY; MULTIDRUG RESISTANCE; NONHUMAN; PREVALENCE; PROSTHETIC VALVE ENDOCARDITIS; SKIN DECONTAMINATION; SKIN INFECTION; SOFT TISSUE INFECTION; STAPHYLOCOCCAL BACTEREMIA; TOXIN ANALYSIS; URINARY TRACT INFECTION; CATHETERIZATION; CLOSTRIDIUM INFECTION; COMORBIDITY; CROSS INFECTION; ISOLATION AND PURIFICATION; METHICILLIN RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; MICROBIOLOGY; REVIEW; STAPHYLOCOCCUS INFECTION;

CATHETERIZATION; CLOSTRIDIUM DIFFICILE; CLOSTRIDIUM INFECTIONS; COMORBIDITY; CROSS INFECTION; GRAM-NEGATIVE BACTERIA; GRAM-NEGATIVE BACTERIAL INFECTIONS; HUMANS; METHICILLIN-RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; STAPHYLOCOCCAL INFECTIONS;

EID: 66149087383     PISSN: 00272507     EISSN: 19317581     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/msj.20070     Document Type: Article

References (102)

1. Wald HL, Kramer AM. Nonpayment for harms resulting from medical care: catheter-associated urinary tract infections. JAMA 2007; 298: 2782-2784.
2. Kohn LT, Corrigan JM. To Err is Human: Building a Safer Health System. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 2000.
3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Healthcare Safety Network. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dhqp/nhsn.html. Accessed September 2008.
4. Darouiche RO. Device infections: a macroproblem that starts with microadherence. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 33: 1567-1572.
5. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Healthcare Safety Network Manual: Patient Safety Component Protocol. Available at: www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dhqp/pdf/nhsn/nhsn manual patientsafetyprotocol current.pdf. Accessed September 2008.
6. Mermel LA. Prevention of intravascular catheter-related infections. Ann Intern Med 2000; 132: 391-402.
7. Hana R, Raad IR. Diagnosis of catheter-related bloodstream infection. Curr Infect Dis Rep 2005; 7: 413-419.
8. Pittet D, Tarara D, Wenzel RP. Nosocomial bloodstream infection in critically ill patients. Excess length of stay, extra costs, and attributable mortality. JAMA 1994; 271: 1598-1601.
9. Maki DG, Kluger DM, Crnich CJ. The risk of bloodstream infection in adults with different intravascular devices: a systematic review of 200 published prospective studies. Mayo Clin Proc 2006; 81: 1159-1171.
10. Hugonnet S, Sax H, Eggimann P, et al. Nosocomial bloodstream infections and clinical sepsis. Emerg Infect Dis 2004; 10: 76-81.
11. Krein SL, Hofer TP, Kowalski CP, et al. Use of central venous catheter-related bloodstream infection prevention practices by US hospitals. Mayo Clin Proc 2007; 82: 672-678.
12. O'Grady NP, Alexander M, Dellinger EP, et al. Guidelines for the prevention of intravascular catheter-related infections. MMWR Recomm Rep 2002; 51: 1-29.
13. Institute for Healthcare Improvement. Implement the central line bundle. Available at: http://www.ihi.org/ihi/topics/criticalcare/intensivecare/ changes/implementthecentrallinebundle.htm. Accessed September 2008.
14. Bleasdale SC, Trick WE, Gonzalez IM, et al. Effectiveness of chlorhexidine bathing to reduce catheter-associated bloodstream infections in medical intensive care unit patients. Arch Intern Med 2007; 167: 2073-2079.
15. Maki DG, Mermel LA, Klugar D, et al. The efficacy of a chlorhexidine impregnated sponge (Biopatch) for the prevention of intravascular catheter-related infection-a prospective randomized controlled multicenter study [abstract]. Paper presented at: Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy; 2000; Toronto, Canada, Accessed July 2008.
16. Niël-Weise BS, Stijnen T, van den Broek PJ. Anti-infective-treated central venous catheters: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Intensive Care Med 2007; 33: 2058-2068.
17. O'Grady NP, Alexander M, Dellinger EP, et al. Guidelines for the prevention of intravascular catheter-related infections. MMWR 2002; 10: 1-29.
18. Nicolle LE. The prevention of hospital-acquired urinary tract infection. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 46: 251-253.
19. Mandell G, Bennett J, Dolin R. Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases. 6th ed. New York, NY: Churchill Livingstone; 2005.
20. Saint S, Kowalski CP, Kaufman SR, et al. Preventing hospital-acquired urinary tract infection in the United States: a national study. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 46: 243-250.
21. Saint S, Kaufman SR, Rogers MAM, et al. Condom versus indwelling urinary catheters: a randomized trial. J Am Geriatr Soc 2006; 54: 1055-1061.
22. Klevens RM, Morrison MA, Nadle J, et al. Invasive methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in the United States. JAMA 2007; 298: 1763-1771.
23. Jarvis WR, Schlosser J, Chinn RY, Tweeten S. National prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in inpatients at US health care facilities, 2006. Am J Infect Control 2007; 35: 631-637.
24. Seybold U, Kourbatova EV, Johnson JG, et al. Emergence of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus USA300 genotype as a major cause of health care-associated blood stream infections. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 42: 647-656.
25. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Four pediatric deaths from community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus-Minnesota and North Dakota, 1997-1999. MMWR 1999; 48: 707-710.
26. Kollef MH. Limitations of vancomycin in the management of resistant staphylococcal infections. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 45(suppl 3): S191-S195.
27. Kuehnert MJ, Kruszon-Moran D, Hill HA, et al. Prevalence of Staphylococcus aureus nasal colonization in the United States, 2001-2002. J Infect Dis 2006; 193: 172-179.
28. Lowy FD. Staphylococcal aureus infections. N Engl J Med 1998; 339: 520-532.
29. Applebaum P. Microbiology of antibiotic resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Infect Dis 2007:45(suppl 3): S165-S170.
30. Harbarth S, Fankhauser C, Schrenzel J, et al. Universal screening for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcal aureus at hospital admission and nosocomial infection in surgical patients. JAMA 2008; 299: 1149-1157.
31. Robicsek A, Beaumont J, Paule S, et al. Universal surveillance for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in 3 affiliated hospitals. Ann Intern Med 2008; 148: 409-418.
32. Everett ED, McNitt TR, Rahm AE, et al. Epidemiologic investigation of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a burn unit. Mil Med 1978; 143: 165-167.
33. Klein E, Smith DL, Laxminarayan R. Hospitalizations and deaths caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, United States, 1999-2005. Emerg Infect Dis 2007; 13: 1840-1846.
34. Klevens RM, Edwards JR, Tenover FC, et al. Changes in the epidemiology of Staphylococcus aureus in intensive care units in US hospitals, 1992-2003. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 42: 389-391.
35. Oztoprak N, Cevik MA, Akinci EA, et al. Risk factors for ICU-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections. Am J Infect Control 2006; 34: 1-5.
36. Tacconelli E, De Angelis G, Cataldo MA, et al. Does antibiotic exposure increase the risk of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) isolation? A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Antimicrob Chemother 2008; 61: 26-38.
37. Jernigan JA, Arnold K, Heilpern K, et al. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus as community pathogen [conference summary]. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vol12no11/06-0911.htm. Accessed September 2008.
38. King MD, Humphrey BJ, Wang YF, et al. Emergence of community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus USA 300 clone as the predominant cause of skin and soft-tissue infections. Ann Intern Med 2006; 144: 309-317.
39. Hamilton SM, Bryant AE, Carroll KC, et al. In vitro production of Panton-Valentine leukocidin among strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus causing diverse infections. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 45: 1550-1558.
40. Diep BA, Chambers HF, Graber CJ, et al. Emergence of multidrug-resistant, community-associated, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus clone USA300 in men who have sex with men. Ann Intern Med 2008; 148: 249-257.
41. Moran GJ, Krishnadasan A, Gorwitz RJ, et al. Methicillin-resistant S. aureus infections among patients in the emergency department. N Engl J Med 2006; 355: 666-674.
42. Treatment of community-associated MRSA infections. Med Lett 2006; 48: 13-14.
43. Baddour LM, Wilson WR, Bayer AS, et al. Infective endocarditis: diagnosis, antimicrobial therapy, and management of complications. Circulation 2005; 111: e394-e433.
44. Soriano A, Marco F, Martínez JA, et al. Influence of vancomycin minimum inhibitory concentration on the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 46: 193-200.
45. Hidayat LK, Hsu DI, Quist R, et al. Highdose vancomycin therapy for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections. Arch Intern Med 2006; 166: 2138-2144.
46. Jeffres MN, Isakow W, Doherty JA, et al. Predictors of mortality for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus health-care-associated pneumonia. Chest 2006; 130: 947-955.
47. Liu C, Chambers HF. Staphylococcus aureus with heterogeneous resistance to vancomycin: epidemiology, clinical significance, and critical assessment of diagnostic methods. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2003; 47: 3040-3045.
48. Fowler VG, Boucher HW, Corey R, et al. Daptomycin versus standard therapy for bacteremia and endocarditis caused by Staphylococcus aureus. N Engl J Med 2006; 355: 653-665.
49. Wunderink RG, Rello J, Cammarata SK, et al. Linezolid vs vancomycin. Chest 2002; 124: 1789-1797.
50. Muto CA, Jernigan JA, Ostrowsky BE, et al. SHEA guideline for preventing nosocomial transmission of multidrug-resistant strains of Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2003; 24: 362-386.
51. Huang SS, Yokoe DS, Hinrichsen VL, et al. Impact of routine intensive care unit surveillance cultures and resultant barrier precautions on hospitalwide methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 43: 971-978.
52. Lautenbach E. Expanding the universe of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus prevention. Ann Intern Med 2008; 148: 474-476.
53. Gaynes R, Edwards JR, and the National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System. Overview of nosocomial infections caused by gram-negative bacilli. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 41: 848-854.
54. Philippon A, Labia R, Jacoby G. Extended-spectrum b-lactamases. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1989; 33: 1131-1136.
55. Jacoby GA, Medeiros AA, O'Brien TF, et al. Broad-spectrum transmissible beta-lactamases. N Engl J Med 1988; 319: 723-724.
56. Paterson DL, Ko WC, Gottberg AV, et al. International prospective of Klebsiella pneumoniae bacteremia: implications of ESBL production in nosocomial infections. Arch Intern Med 2004; 140: 26-32.
57. National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) system report, data summary from January 1992 through June 2004, issued October 2004. Am J Infect Control 2004; 32: 470-485.
58. Lautenbach E, Patel JB, Bilker WB, et al. Extendedspectrum β-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae: risk factors for infection and impact of resistance on outcomes. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 32: 1162-1171.
59. Jacoby GA, Munoz-Price LS. The new β-lactamases. N Engl J Med 2005; 352: 380-391.
60. Hyle EP, Lipworth AD, Zaoutis TE, et al. Risk factors for increasing multi-drug resistance among extended-spectrum β-lactamase producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella species. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 40: 1317-1324.
61. Paterson DL, Mulazimoglu L, Casellas JM, et al. Epidemiology of ciprofloxacin resistance and its relationship to extended-spectrum beta-lactamase production in Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates producing bacteremia. Clin Infect Dis 2000; 30: 473-478.
62. Paterson DL. Recommendations for treatment of severe infections caused by Enterobacteriaceae producing extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBLs). Clin Microbiol Infect 2000; 6: 460-463.
63. Meyer KS, Urban C, Eagan JA, et al. Nosocomial outbreak of Klebsiella infection resistant to third-generation cephalosporins. Ann Intern Med 1993; 119: 353-358.
64. Karas JA, Pillay DG, Muckart D, Sturm AW. Treatment failure due to extended-spectrum beta-lactamase. J Antimicrob Chemother 1996; 37: 203-204.
65. Paterson DL, Ko W, Gottberg A, et al. Outcome of cephalosporin treatment for serious infections due to apparently susceptible organisms producing extended-spectrum β-lactamases: implications for the microbiology laboratory. J Clin Microbiol 2001; 39: 2206-2212.
66. Paterson DL, Ko W, Gottberg A, et al. In vitro susceptibility and clinical outcomes of bacteremia due to extended-spectrum beta-lactamase producing Klebsiella pneumoniae. Clin Infect Dis 1998; 27: 956.
67. Hyle EP, Lipworth AD, Zaoutis TE, et al. Impact of inadequate initial antimicrobial therapy on mortality in infections due to extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae: variability by site of infection. Arch Intern Med 2005; 165: 1375-1380.
68. Kollef MH, Sherman G, Ward S. Inadequate antimicrobial treatment of infections: a risk factor for hospital mortality among critically ill patients. Chest 1999; 115: 462-474.
69. Harris AD, Smith D, Johnson JA, et al. Risk factors for imipenem-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa among hospitalized patients. Clin Infect Dis 2002; 34: 340-345.
70. Abbo A, Carmeli Y, Navon-Venezia S, et al. Impact of multi-drug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii on clinical outcomes. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2007; 26: 793-800.
71. Lee S, Kim NJ, Choi S, et al. Risk factors for acquisition of imipenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii: a case-control study. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2004; 48: 224-228.
72. Ahmad M, Urban C, Mariano N, et al. Clinical characteristics and molecular epidemiology associated with imipenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae. Clin Infect Dis 1999; 29: 352-355.
73. Bratu S, Tolaney P, Karumudi U, et al. Carbapenemase-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae in Brooklyn, NY: molecular epidemiology and in vitro activity of polymyxin B and other agents. J Antimicrob Chemother 2005; 56: 128-132.
74. Patel G, Huprikar S, Jenkins SG, Calfee DP. Carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae: risk factors and mortality [abstract 563]. Paper presented at: 45th Annual Meeting of the Infectious Diseases Society of America; October 2007; San Diego, CA.
75. Villegas MV, Hartstein AI. Acinetobacter outbreaks. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2003; 24: 284-295.
76. Paterson DL. The epidemiologic profile of infections with multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter species. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 43: S43-S48.
77. Munoz-Price LS, Weinstein RA. Acinetobacter infection. N Engl J Med 2008; 358: 1271-1281.
78. Bonomo RA, Szabo D. Mechanisms of multidrug resistance in Acinetobacter species and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 43: S49-S56.
79. Go ES, Urban C, Burns J, et al. Clinical and molecular epidemiology of Acinetobacter infections sensitive only to polymyxin B and sulbactam. Lancet 1994; 344: 1329-1333.
80. Garnacho-Montero J, Ortiz-Leyba C, Fernandez-Hinojosa E, et al. Acinetobacter baumanii ventilator-associated pneumonia: epidemiological and clinical findings. Intensive Care Med 2005; 31: 549-555.
81. Landman DL, Bratu S, Kochar S, et al. Evolution of antimicrobial resistance among Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter baumanii, and Klebsiella pneumoniae in Brooklyn, NY. J Antimicrob Chemother 2007; 20: 78-82.
82. Falagas ME, Kasiakou SK, Rafailidis PI, et al. Comparison of mortality of patients with Acinetobacter baumannni bacteraemia receiving appropriate and inappropriate empirical therapy. J Antimicrob Chemother 2006; 57: 1251-1254.
83. Bartlett JG. Narrative review: the new epidemic of Clostridium difficile associated enteric disease. Ann Intern Med 2006; 145: 758-764.
84. Robertson MB, Breen LJ, Desmond PV, et al. Incidence of antibiotic related diarrhea and pseudomembranous colitis: a prospective study of lincomycin, clindamycin and ampicillin. Med J Aust 1977; 1: 243-246.
85. Anand A, Glatt AE. Clostridium difficile infection associated with antineoplastic chemotherapy: a review. Clin Infect Dis 1993; 17: 109-113.
86. Hippenstiel J, Kratz T, Krull M, et al. Rho protein inhibition blocks protein kinase C translocation and activation. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1998; 245: 830-834.
87. Loo V, Poirier L, Miller MA, et al. A predominantly clonal multi-institutional outbreak of Clostridium difficile associated diarrhea with high morbidity and mortality. N Engl J Med 2005; 353: 2442-2449.
88. Warny M, Pepin J, Fang A, et al. Toxin production by an emerging strain of Clostridium difficile associated with outbreaks of sever disease in North America and Europe. Lancet 2005; 366: 1079-1084.
89. Johnson S, Gerding DN. Clostridium difficile associated diarrhea. Clin Infect Dis 1998; 26: 1027-1036.
90. Muto CA, Pokrywka M, Shutt K, et al. A large outbreak of Clostridium difficile associated disease with an unexpected proportion of deaths and colectomies at a teaching hospital following increased fluoroquinolone use. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2005; 26: 273-280.
91. Bignardi GE. Risk factors for Clostridium difficile infection. J Hosp Infect 1998; 40: 1-15.
92. Tedesco FJ. Pseudomembranous colitis: pathogenesis and therapy. Med Clin North Am 1982; 66: 655-664.
93. Gerding DN, Johnson S, Peterson LR, et al. Clostridium difficile associated diarrhea and colitis. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1995; 16: 459-477.
94. Manabe YC, Vinetz JM, Moore RD, et al. Clostridium difficile colitis: an efficient clinical approach to diagnosis. Ann Intern Med 1995; 123: 835-840.
95. Belanger S, Boissinot M, Clairoux N, et al. Rapid detection of Clostridium difficile in feces by real time PCR. J Clin Microbiol 2003; 41: 730-734.
96. Tedesco, FJ, Gordon, D, Fortson WC. Approach to patients with multiple relapses of antibiotic-associated pseudomembranous colitis. Am J Gastroenterol 1985; 80: 867.
97. Boyce JM, Pittet D, for the Healthcare Infection Control Practice Advisory Committee, Society for Healthcare Epidemiology in America, Association for Professionals in Infection Control, and Infectious Diseases Society of America. Hand Hygiene Task Force guideline for hand hygiene in healthcare settings: recommendations of the Healthcare Infection Control Practice Advisory Committee and HICPAC/SHEA/APIC/IDSA Hand Hygiene Task Force. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2002; 23(suppl): S3-S40.
98. Siegel JD, Rhinehard E, Jackson M, Chiarello L, and the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Guideline for isolation precautions: preventing transmission of infections agents in healthcare settings, 2007. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dhqp/pdf/ guidelines/isolation2007.pdf. Accessed September 2008.
99. United Hospital Fund. New York hospitals join forces to target infections in ICUs. Available at: http://www.uhfnyc.org/ press_release3159/press_release_show.htm?doc_id=367431. Accessed September 2008.
100. Ortega D, Chen BYL, Rahman M, et al. A multidisciplinary approach to the prevention and control of central line-associated bloodstream infections (CLABS) in the intensive care unit (ICU) of a community hospital in Central Harlem, New York. Am J Infect Control 2007; 35: E153-E154.
101. Institute for Healthcare Improvement. Protecting 5 million lives from harm. Available at: http://www.ihi.org/ihi/programs/campaign. Accessed July 2008.
102. Cohen SH, Gerding D, Johnson S, et al. IDSA proposed guidelines for the treatment of C. difficile diarrhea. Paper presented at: 45th Annual Meeting of the Infectious Diseases Society of America; October 4-7, 2007 San Diego, CA.