Determinants of whether or not mixtures of disinfection by-products are similar

Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health - Part A: Current Issues

Volumn 72, Issue 7, 2009, Pages 437-460

  Bull, Richard J ^a   Rice, Glenn ^b   Teuschler, Linda K ^b  

^a MoBull Consulting   (United States)

^b U S ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BROMIDE; CARCINOGEN; CHLORIDE DIOXIDE; CHLORINE; DISINFECTION BY PRODUCT; DRINKING WATER; HALOACETIC ACID; IODIDE; MONOCHLORAMINE; MUTAGENIC AGENT; NATURAL ORGANIC MATTER; ORGANOHALOGEN DERIVATIVE; OZONE; TRIHALOMETHANE; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

AMES TEST; ARTICLE; BIOASSAY; CARCINOGENESIS; CARCINOGENICITY; CHEMICAL COMPOSITION; CHLORINATION; DOSE RESPONSE; GEOGRAPHY; LIVER TOXICITY; MUTAGENIC ACTIVITY; NEPHROTOXICITY; NEUROTOXICITY; OZONATION; PH; POLLUTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REPRODUCTIVE TOXICITY; RISK ASSESSMENT; SEASON; TEMPERATURE; TIME; TOTAL ORGANIC CARBON; WATER SUPPLY; WATER TREATMENT;

ANIMALS; CARCINOGENS; COMPLEX MIXTURES; DISINFECTANTS; EPIDEMIOLOGIC MEASUREMENTS; HUMANS; HYDROGEN-ION CONCENTRATION; MUTAGENS; ORGANIC CHEMICALS; TEMPERATURE; WATER; WATER SUPPLY;

EID: 62249214338     PISSN: 15287394     EISSN: 10872620     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/15287390802608916     Document Type: Article

References (194)

1. Aggazzotti, G., Righi, E., Fantuzzi, G., Biasotti, B., Ravera, G., Kanitz, S., Barbone, F., Sansebastiano, G., Battaglia, M. A., Leoni, V., Fabiani, L., Triassi, M., and Sciacca, S. 2004. Chlorination by-products (CBPs) in drinking water and adverse pregnancy outcomes in Italy. J. Water Health 2:233-247.
2. Amy, G. L., Chadik, P. A., Chowdhury, Z. K., King, P. H., and Cooper, W. J. 1985. Factors affecting incorporation of bromide into brominated trihalomethanes during chlorination. In Water chlorination: Chemistry, environmental impacts, and health effects, vol. 5, eds. R. L. Jolley, R.J. Bull, W. P. Davis, S. Katz, M. H. Roberts, Jr., and V. A. Jacobs, pp. 907-922. Chelsea, MI: Lewis.
3. Amy, G., Siddiqui, M., Zhai, W., Debroux, J., and Odem, W. 1994. Survey of bromide in drinking water and impacts on DBP formation. Publication 90622. Denver, CO: AWWA Research Foundation and AWWA.
4. Amy, G., Siddiqui, M., Ozekin, K., Zhu, H. W., and Wang, C. 1998. Empirically-based models for predicting chlorination and ozonation by-products: Trihalomethanes, haloacetic acids, chloral hydrate, and bromate, University of Colorado Cooperative Agreement No. CX819579 with the Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, EPA/815/R-98/005. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
5. Ashby, J., and Paton, D. 1993. The influence of chemical structure on the extent and sites of carcinogenesis for 522 rodent carcinogens and 55 different human carcinogen exposures. Mutat. Res. 286:3-74.
6. Ashby, J., and Tennant, R. W. 1988. Chemical structure, Salmonella mutagenicity and extent of carcinogenicity as indicators of genotoxic carcinogenesis among 222 chemical tests in rodents by the U.S. NCI/NTP. Mutat. Res. 204:117-115.
7. AWWA (American Waterworks Association). 2009. Chlorine dioxide. AWWA Research Foundation Reports. Denver, CO: AWWA.
8. Backlund, P., Wondergem, E., Voogd, K., and de Jong, A. 1989. Influence of chlorination pH and chlorine dose on the formation of mutagenic activity and the strong bacterial mutagen 3-chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)- furanone (MX) in water. Chemosphere 18:1903-1911.
9. Baribeau, H., Krasner, S. W., Chinn, R., and Singer, P. C. 2000. Impact of biomass on the stability of haloacetic acids and trihalomethanes in a simulated distribution system. Water Quality Technology Conference Proceedings. Salt Lake City, UT, November 5-9.
10. Bartsch, H., Camus, A., and Malaveille, C. 1976. Comparative mutagenicity of N-nitrosamines in a semi-solid and in a liquid incubation system in the presence of rat or human tissue fractions. Mutat. Res. 37:149-162.
11. Bieber, T. I., and Trehy, M. L. 1983. Dihalonitriles in chlorinated natural waters. In Water chlorination: Environmental impact and health effects, vol. 4, eds. R. L. Jolley, W. A. Brungs, J. A. Cotruvo, R. B. Cumming, J. S. Mattice, and V. A. Jacobs, pp. 85-96. Ann Arbor, MI: Ann Arbor Science.
12. Bolton, J. L., Trush, M. A., Penning, T. M., Dryhurst, G., and Monks, T. J. 2000. Role of quinones in toxicology. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 13:135-160.
13. Bolyard, M., Fair, P. S., and Hautman, D. P. 1993. Sources of chlorate ion in U.S. drinking water. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 85:81-88.
14. Bull, R. J. 2000. Mode of action of liver tumor induction by trichloroethylene and its metabolites, trichloroacetate and dichloroacetate. Environ. Health Perspect. 108(suppl. 2):241-259.
15. Bull, R. J. 2009. Drinking water disinfection. In Environmental toxicants, 3rd ed., ed. M. Lippmann. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
16. Bull, R. J., Robinson, M., Meier, J. R., and Stober, J. 1982. Use of biological assay systems to assess the relative carcinogenic hazards of disinfection by-products. Environ. Health Perspect. 46:215-227.
17. Bull, R. J., and Robinson, M. 1985. Carcinogenic activity of haloacetonitrile and haloacetone derivatives in the mouse skin and lung. In Water chlorination: Chemistry, environmental impact and health effects, vol. 5, eds. R. L. Jolley, R. J. Bull, W. P. Davis, S. Katz, M. H. Roberts, Jr., and V. A. Jacobs, pp. 221-236. Chelsea, MI: Lewis.
18. Bull, R. J., Stauber, A. J., Bull, M. E., and DeAngelo, A. B. 2000. Carcinogenic effects of brominated haloacetates in male b6c3f1 mice, final report. CR-819562. Research Triangle Park, NC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory.
19. Bull, R. J., Krasner, S. W., Daniel, P. A., and Bull, R. D. 2001. The health effects and occurrence of disinfection by-products, 2nd ed. Denver, CO: American Water Works Association and AWWA Research Foundation.
20. Bull, R. J., Orner, G. A., Cheng, R. S., Stillwell, L., Stauber, A. J., Sasser, L. B., Lingohr, M. K., and Thrall, B. D. 2002. Contribution of dichloroacetate and trichloroacetate to liver tumor induction in mice by trichloroethylene. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 182:55-65.
21. Bull, R. J., Sasser, L. B., and Lei, X. C. 2004. Interactions in the tumor-promoting activity of carbon tetrachloride, trichloroacetate, and dichloroacetate in the liver of male B6C3F1 mice. Toxicology 199:169-183.
22. Bull, R. J., Reckhow, D. A., Rotello, V., Bull, O. M., and Kim, J. 2006. Use of toxicological and chemical models to prioritize DBP research. Denver, CO: American Water Works Association Research Foundation.
23. Bull, R. J., Rice, G., Teuschler, L., and Feder, P. 2009a. Chemical measures of similarity among disinfection by-product mixtures. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A. 72:482-493.
24. Bull, R. J., Aggazzottie, G., and Palumbo, F. 2009b. Drinking water treatment with chlorine dioxide and potential heath effects. In State of the science of chlorine dioxide in drinking water, eds. D. Gates, G. Ziglio, and K. Ozekin. Denver, CO: AWWA Research Foundation.
25. California Department of Health Services. 1999. California drinking water: NDMA-related activities, California Department of Health Services. http:// www.cdph.ca.gov/certlic/drinkingwater/Pages/NDMA.aspx (accessed January 21, 2000).
26. Campbell, K. C. M. 2006. Bromate: Concern for developmental neurotoxicity? Toxicology 221:205-211.
27. Carlton, B. D., Basaran, A. H., Mezza, L. E., George, E. L., and Smith, M. K. 1991. Reproductive effects in Long-Evans rats exposed to chlorine dioxide. Environ. Res. 56:170-177.
28. Charrois, J. W. A., Arend, M. W., Froese, K. L., and Hrudey, S. E. 2004. Detecting N-nitrosamines in drinking water at nanogram per liter levels using ammonia positive chemical ionization. Environ. Sci. Technol. 38:4835-4841.
29. Cheeseman, M. A., Machuga, E. J., and Bailey, A. B. 1999. A tiered approach to threshold of regulation. Food Chem. Toxicol. 37:387-412.
30. Chevrier, C., Junod, B., and Cordier, S. 2004. Does ozonation of drinking water reduce the risk of bladder cancer? Epidemiology. 15:605-614.
31. Choi, J., and Valentine, R. L. 2002. N-Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) from reaction of monochloramine: A new disinfection by-product. Water Res. 36:817-824.
32. Choi, J., and Valentine, R. L. 2003. Nitrosodimethylamine formation in free-chlorine-enhanced nitrosation of dimethylamine. Environ. Sci. Technol. 37:4871-4876.
33. 2. J. Environ. Eng. 107:609-617.
34. Christ, S. A., Read, E. J., Stober, J. A., and Smith, M. K. 1996. Developmental effects of trichloroacetonitrile in corn oil to pregnant Long-Evans rats. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 47:233-247.
35. Christian, M. S., York, R. G., Hoberman, A. M., Diener, R. M., and Fisher, L. C. 2001. Oral (drinking water) developmental toxicity studies of bromodichloromethane (BDCM) in rats and rabbits. Int. J. Toxicol. 20:225-237.
36. Claxton, L. D., Pegram, R. A., Schenck, K. M., Simmons, J. E., and Warren, S. H. 2008. Integrated disinfection by-products mixtures research: Salmonella mutagenicity of water concentrates disinfected by chlorination and ozonation/ postchlorination. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A 71:1187-1194.
37. Cognet, L., Duguet, J. P., Courois, Y., Border, J. P., and Mallevialle, J. 1987. Mutagenic activity of various drinking water treatment lines. In Organic pollutants in water, ed. I. Suffet and M. Malaiyandi, pp. 627-640. Advances in chemistry series, No. 214. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society.
38. Conolly, R. B., Kimbell, J. S., Janszen, D., Schlosser, P. M., Kalisak, D., Preston, J., and Miller, F. J. 2004. Human respiratory tract cancer risks of inhaled formaldehyde: Dose-response predictions derived from biologically-motivated computational modeling of a combined rodent and human dataset. Toxicol Sci. 82:279-296.
39. Cowman, G. A., and Singer, P. C. 1996. Effect of bromide ion on haloacetic acid speciation resulting from chlorination and chloramination of aquatic humic substances. Environ. Sci. Toxicol. 30:1-16.
40. Croué, J.-P., and Reckhow, D. A. 1989. Destruction of chlorination by-products with sulfite. Environ. Sci. Technol. 23:1412-1419.
41. Daniel, F. B., Condie, L. W., Robinson, M., Stober, J. A., York, R. G., Olson, G. R., and Wang S. R. 1990. Comparative subchronic toxicity studies of three disinfectants. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 82:61-69.
42. DeAngelo, A. B., Daniel, F. B., Most, B. M., and Olson, G. R. 1996. The carcinogenicity of dichloroacetic acid in the male Fischer 344 rat. Toxicology 114:207-221.
43. DeAngelo, A. B., Daniel, F. B., Most, B. M., and Olson, G. R. 1997. Failure of monochloroacetic acid and trichloroacetic acid administered in the drinking water to produce liver cancer in male F344/N rats. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 52:425-445.
44. DeMarini, D. M., Abu-Shakra, A., Felton, C. F., Patterson, K. S., and Shelton, M. L. 1995. Mutation spectra in Salmonella of chlorinated, chloraminated, or ozonated drinking water extracts: Comparison to MX. Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 26:270-285.
45. Dolara, P., Ricci, V., Burrini, D., and Griffini, O. 1981. Effect of ozonation and chlorination on mutagenic potential of drinking water. Bull Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 27:1-6.
46. Eder, E., Henschler, D., and Neudecker, T. 1982. Mutagenic properties of allylic and alpha, beta-unsaturated compounds: Consideration of alkylating mechanisms. Xenobiotica 12:831-848.
47. Feder, P. I., Ma, Z, Bull, R. J., Teuschler, L. K., Schenck, K. M., Simmons, J. E., and Rice, G. E. 2009a. Evaluating sufficient similarity for disinfection by-product (DBP) similar mixtures via multivariate statistical procedures. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A. 72:468-481.
48. Feder, P. I., Ma, Z, Bull, R. J., Teuschler, L. K., and Rice, G. E. 2009b. Evaluating sufficient similarity for drinkingwater disinfection by-product (DBP) mixtures with bootstrap hypothesis test procedures. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A. 72:494-504.
49. Fristachi, A., and Rice, G. 2007. Estimation of the total daily oral intake of NDMA attributable to drinking water. J. Water Health 5:341-355.
50. Gallard, H., and von Gunten, U. 2002. Chlorination of natural organic matter: Kinetics of chlorination and of THM formation. Water Res 36: 65-74.
51. Gill, M. W., Swanson, M. S., Murphy, S. R., and Bailey, G. P. 2000. Two-generation reproduction and developmental neurotoxicity study with sodium chlorite in the rat. J. Appl. Toxicol. 20:291-303.
52. Giller, S., Le Curieux, F., Erb, F., and Marzin, D. 1997. Comparative genotoxicity of halogenated acetic acids found in drinking water. Mutagenesis 12:321-328.
53. Glaze, W. H., Koga, M., Caneilla, D, Wang, K., McGuire, M. J., Liang, S., Davis, M. K, Tate, C. H., and Aieta, E. M. 1989. Ozonation by-products. 2. Improvement of an aqueous phase derivatization method for the detection of formaldehyde and other carbonyl compounds formed by the ozonation of drinking water. Environ. Sci. Technol. 23:838-847.
54. Gold, L. S., Slone, T. H., Manley, M. B., Garfinkel, G. B., and Ames, B. N. 2007. Carcinogen Potency Database (CPDB). http://potency.berkeley.edu/ .
55. Gonzalez, F. J., and Shah, Y. M.. 2008. PPARalpha: Mechanism of species differences and hepatocarcinogenesis of peroxisome proliferators. Toxicology 246:2-8.
56. Gordon, G., Adam, L., and Bubnis, B. 1995. Minimizing chlorate ion formation in drinking water when hypochlorite ion is the chlorination agent. Denver, CO.: AwwaRF and AWWA.
57. Gruener, N. 1978. Mutagenicity of ozonated, recycled water. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 20:522-526.
58. Harrington, R. M., Romano, R. R., Gates, D., and Ridgway, P. 1995a. Subchronic toxicity of sodium chlorite in the rat. J. Am. Coll. Toxicol. 14:21-33.
59. Harrington, R. M., Romano, R. R., and Irvine, L. 1995b. Developmental toxicity of sodium chlorite in the rabbit. J. Am. Coll. Toxicol. 14:108-118.
60. Heasley, V. L., Fisher, A. M., Herman, E. E., Jacobsen, F. E., Miller, E. W., Ramirez, A. M., Royer, N. R., Whisenand, J. M., Zoetewey, D. L., and Shellhamer, D. F. 2004. Investigations of the reactions of monochloramine and dichloramine with selected phenols: Examination of humic acid models and water contaminants. Environ. Sci. Technol. 38:5022-5029.
61. Hery, M., Hecht, G., Gerber, J. M., Gendre, J. C., Hubert, G., and Rebuffaud, J. 1995. Exposure to chloramine in the atmosphere of indoor swimming pools. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 39:477-439.
62. Hong, Y., Liu, S., Song, H., and Karanfil, T. 2007. HAA formation during chloramination - Significance of monochloramine's direct reaction with DOM. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 99(8):57-69.
63. Hooth, M. J., DeAngelo, A. B., George, M. H., Boorman, G. A., and Wolf, D. C. 1999. Sodium chlorate treatment results in a dose-dependent increase in rat thyroid follicular cell hyperplasia following subchronic exposure in drinking water. In Microbial pathogens and disinfection by-products in drinking water: Health effects and management of risks, eds. G. F. Craun, F. S. Hauchman, and D. E. Robinson, pp. 581-585. Washington, DC: ILSI Press.
64. Hussain, S., and Osterman-Golkar, S. 1984. Dose-response relationships for mutations induced in E. coli by some model compounds. Hereditas 101:57-68.
65. Hyttinen, J. M., Niittykoski, J. M., and Jansson, K. 1995. Lack of uniformity in the mutational spectra of chlorhydroxyfuranones in Salmonella typhimurium strain TA100. Mutagenesis 10:321-323
66. IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer). 1999. Species differences in thyroid, kidney and urinary bladder carcinogenesis, eds. C. C. Capen, E. Dybing, J. M. Rice, and J. D. Wilbourn. IARC Scientific Publication No. 147. Lyon, France: IARC Press.
67. IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer). 2004. Some drinking water disinfectants and contaminants, including arsenic. Monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans, vol. 84. Lyon, France: IARC Press.
68. IPCS (International Programme on Chemical Safety). 2000. Disinfectants and disinfectant by-products. Environmental Health Criteria 216. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO/IPCS. http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc216.htm.
69. Issac, R. A., Wajon, J. E., and Morris, J. C. 1985. Subbreakpoint modeling of the HOBr-NH3-Org-N reactions. In Water chlorination: Chemistry, environmental impact and health effects, vol. 5, eds. R. L. Jolley, R. J. Bull, W. P. Davis, S. Katz, M. H. Roberts, Jr., and V. A. Jacobs, pp. 985-998. Chelsea, MI: Lewis.
70. Ito, N., Hiasa, Y., Tamai, A., Okajima, E., and Kitamura, H. 1969. Histogenesis of urinary bladder tumors induced by N-butyl-N-(4- hydroxybutyl) nitrosamine in rats. Gann 60:401-410.
71. Jensen, J. N., St. Aubin, J. J., Christman, R. F., and Johnson, J. D. 1985. Characterization of the reaction between monochloramine and isolated aquatic fulvic acid. In Water chlorination: Chemistry, environmental impact and health effects, vol. 5, eds. R. L. Jolley, R. J. Bull, W. P. Davis, S. Katz, M. H. Roberts, Jr., and V.A. Jacobs, pp. 939-949. Chelsea, MI: Lewis.
72. Kato-Weinstein, J., Lingohr, M. K., Orner, G. A., Thrall, B. D., and Bull, R. J. 1998. Effects of dichloroacetate on glycogen metabolism in B6C3F1 mice. Toxicology. 130:141-154.
73. Kato-Weinstein, J., Stauber, A. J., Orner, G. A., Thrall, B. D., and Bull, R. J. 2001. Differential effects of dihalogenated and trihalogenated acetates in the liver of B6C3F1 mice. J. Appl. Toxicol. 21:81-89.
74. Knasmüller, S., Zöhrer, E., Kronberg, L., Kundi, M., Franzén, R., and Schulte-Hermann, R. 1996. Mutational spectra of Salmonella typhimurium revertants induced by chlorohydroxyfuranones, byproducts of chlorine disinfection of drinking water. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 9:374-381.
75. Koga, M., Akiyama, T., and Glaze, W. H. 1991. Analysis of ozonation by-products produced in drinking water treatment. Toxicol. Ind. Health 7:423-432.
76. Koivusalo, M., Jaakkola, J. K., and Vartiainen, T. 1994. Drinking water mutagenicity in past exposure assessment of the studies on drinking water and cancer - Application and evaluation in Finland. Environ. Res. 64:90-101.
77. Komulainen, H., Kosma, V. M., Vaittinen, S. L., Vartianinen, T., Kaliste-Korhonen, E., Lotjonen, S., Tuominen, R. K., and Tuomisto, J. 1997. Carcinogenicity of the drinking water mutagen 3-chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5- hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone in the rat. JNCI 89:848-856.
78. Kool, H. J., and Hrubec, J. 1986. The influence of ozone, chlorine and chlorine dioxide treatment on mutagenic activity in (drinking) water. Ozone Sci. Eng. 8:217-234.
79. Kool, J. L., Carpenter, J. C., and Fields, B. S. 1999. Effect of monochloramine disinfection of municipal drinking water on risk of Legionnaires' disease. Lancet 353:272-277.
80. Krasner, S. W., McGuire, M. J., Jacangelo, J. G., Patania, N. L., Regan, K. M., and Aieta, E. M. 1989. The occurrence of disinfection by-products in U.S. drinking water. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 81:41-53.
81. Krasner, S. W., Sclimenti, M. J., and Coffey, B. M. 1993. Testing biologically active filters for removing aldehydes formed during ozonation. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 85:62-71.
82. Krasner, S. W., Sclimenti, M. J., and Means, E. G. 1994. Quality degradation: Implications for DBP formation. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 86:34-47.
83. Krasner, S. W., Croué, J. P., Buffle, J., and Perdue, E. M. 1996. Three approaches for characterizing NOM. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 88:66-79.
84. Krasner, S. W., Weinberg, H. S., Richardson, S. D., Pastor, S. J., Chinn, R., Sclimenti, M. J., Onstad, G. D., and Thruston, A. D., Jr. 2006. Occurrence of a new generation of disinfection by-products. Environ. Sci. Technol. 40:7175-7185.
85. Kroes, R., Galli, C., Munro, I., Schilter, B., Tran, L.-A., Walker, R., and Würtzen, G. 2000. Threshold of toxicological concern for chemical substances present in the diet: A practical tool for assessing the need for toxicity testing. Food Chem. Toxicol. 38:255-312.
86. Kronberg, L., and Christman, R. F. 1989. Chemistry of mutagenic by-products of water chlorination. Sci. Total Environ. 81-82:219-230.
87. LaLonde, R. T., and Leo, H. R. 1994. Interactive chlorine-by-bromine and hydrogen-by-hydroxyl group replacement effects in 2(5H)-furanone mutagenicity. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 7:779-783.
88. 13C NMR chemical shifts as determinants of mutagenicity. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 4:35-40.
89. LaLonde, R. T., Cook, G. P., Perakyla, H., and Bu, L. 1991b. Structure-activity relationships of bacterial mutagens related to 3-chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone: An emphasis on the effect of stepwise removal of chlorine from the dichloromethyl group. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 4:540-545.
90. LaLonde, R. T., Bu, L., Henwookd, A., Fiumano, J., and Zhang, L. 1997. Bromine-, chlorine-, and mixed halogen substituted 4-methyl-2(5H)- furanones: Synthesis and mutagenic effects of halogen and hydroxyl group replacements. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 10:1427-1436.
91. Leenheer, J. A., Croue, J.-P., Benjamin, M., Korshin, G. V., Hwang, C. J., Bruchet, A., and Aiken, G. R. 2000. Comprehensive isolation of natural organic matter from water for spectral characterization and reactivity testing. In Natural organic matter and disinfection by-products: Characterization and control in drinking water, eds. S. E. Barrett, S. W. Krasner, and G. L. Amy, pp. 68-83. American Chemical Society Symposium Series 761. Washington, DC: ACS.
92. Leenheer, J. A., Aiken, G. R., Woodside, G., and O'Connor-Patel, K. 2007. DOM in recharge waters of the Santa Ana River Basin. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 99:118-131.
93. Lijinksy, W. 1999. N-Nitroso compounds in the diet. Mutat. Res. 443:129-138.
94. Lingohr, M. K., Thrall, B. D., and Bull, R. J. 2001. Effects of dichloroacetate (DCA) on serum insulin levels and insulin-controlled signaling proteins in livers of B6C3F1 mice. Toxicol. Sci. 59:178-184.
95. Loper, J. C., Lang, D. R., Schoeny, R. S., Richmond, B. B. Gallagher, P. M., and Smith, C. C. 1978. Residue organic mixtures from drinking water show in vitro mutagenic and transforming activity. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 4:919-938.
96. Lucas, L. T., Gatehouse, D., and Shuker, D. E. 1999. Efficient nitroso group transfer from N-nitrosindoles to nucleotides and 2′-deoxyguanosine at physiological pH. A new pathway for N-nitroso compounds to exert genotoxicity. J. Biol. Chem. 274:18319-18326.
97. McCann, J., Gold, L. S., Horn, L., McGill, R., Graedel, T. E., and Kaldor, J. 1988. Statistical analysis of Salmonella test data and comparison to results of animal cancer tests. Mutat. Res. 205:183-195.
98. McClellan, J. N., Reckhow, D. A., Tobiason, J. E., Edzwald, J. K., and Smith, D. B. 2000. A comprehensive kinetic model for chlorine decay and chlorination by-product formation. In Natural organic matter and disinfection byproducts: Cauterization and control in drinking water, eds. S. E. Barrett, S.W. Krasner, and G.L. Amy. pp. 223-246. American Chemical Society Symposium Series Publication No.761. Washington, DC: ACS.
99. McDorman, K. S., Hooth, M. J., Starr, T. B., and Wolf, D. C. 2003. Analysis of preneoplastic and neoplastic renal lesions in Tsc2 mutant Long-Evans (Eker) rats following exposure to a mixture of drinking water disinfection by-products. Toxicology 187:1-12.
100. McGeehin, M. A., Reif, J. S., Becher, J. C., and Mangione, E. J. 1993. Case-control study of bladder cancer and water disinfection by-products in Colorado. Am J. Epidemiol. 138:492-501.
101. Meggs, W. J., Elsheik, T., Metzger, W. J., Albernaz, M., and Bloch, R. M. 1996. Nasal pathology and ultrastructure in patients with chronic airway inflammation (RADS and RUDS) following irritant exposure. Clin. Toxicol. 34:383-396.
102. Meier, J. R. 1988. Genotoxic activity of organic chemicals in drinking water. Mutat. Res. 196:211-245.
103. Meier, J. R. 1990. Mutagens in chlorinated water. In Mutation and the environment, part E: Environmental genotoxicity, risk, and modulation, eds. M. L. Mendelsohn and R. J. Albertini, pp. 11-19. Wilmington, DE: Wiley-Liss.
104. Meier, J. R., Lingg, R. D., and Bull, R. J. 1983. Formation of mutagens following chlorination of humic acid. A model for mutagen formation during drinking water treatment. Mutat. Res. 118:25-41.
105. Meier, J. R., Ringhand, H. P., Coleman, W. E., Munch, J. W., Streicher, R. P., Kaylor, W. H., and Schenk, K. M. 1985. Identification of mutagenic compounds formed during chlorination of humic acid. Mutat. Res. 157:111-122.
106. Meier, J. R., Knohl, R. B., Coleman, W. E., Ringhand, H. P., Munch, J. W., Kaylor, W. H., Streicher, R. P., and Kopfler, F. C. 1987. Studies on the potent bacterial mutagen, 3-chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)- furanone: Aqueous stability, XAD recovery and analytical determination in drinking water and in chlorinated humic acid solutions. Mutat. Res. 189:363-373.
107. Meier, J. R. 1998. Genotoxic activity of organic chemicals in drinking water. Mutat. Res. 196:211-245.
108. Merdink, J. L., Bull, R. J., and Schultz, I. R. 2001. Toxicokinetics of bromodichloroacetate in B6C3F1 mice. J. Appl. Toxicol. 21:53-57.
109. Mills, C. J., Bull, R. J., Cantor, K. P., Reif, J., Hrudey, S. E., and Huston, P. 1998. Workshop report. Health risks of drinking water chlorination by-products: Report of an expert working group. Chron. Dis. Can. 19:91-102.
110. Miltner, R. J., Shukairy, H. B., and Summers, R. S. 1992. Disinfection by-product formation and control by ozonation and biotreatment. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 84:53-62.
111. Mitch, W. A., and Sedlak, D. L. 2002a. Formation of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) from dimethylamine during chlorination. Environ. Sci. Technol. 36:588-595.
112. Mitch, W. A., and Sedlak, D. L. 2002b. Factors controlling nitrosamine formation during wastewater chlorination. Water Sci. Technol. 2:191-198.
113. Mobley, S. A., Taylor, D. H., Laurie, R. D., and Pfohl, R. J. 1990. Chlorine dioxide depresses T3 uptake and delays development of locomotor activity in young rats. In Water chlorination: Chemistry, environmental impact and health effects, vol. 6, ed. R. L. Jolley, L. W. Condie, J. D. Johnson, S. Katz, R. A. Minear, J.S. Mattice, and V. A. Jacobs, pp. 347-358. Chelsea, MI: Lewis.
114. Morris, R. D., Audet, A. M., Angelillo, I. F., Chalmers, T. C., and Mosteller, F. 1992. Chlorination, chlorination by-products and cancer: A meta-analysis. Am. J. Public Health 82:955-963.
115. Munro, I. C., Ford, R. A., Kennepohl, E., and Sprenger, J. G. 1996. Correlation of structural class with no-observed-effect levels: A proposal for establishing a threshold of concern. Food Chem. Toxicol. 34: 829-867.
116. Najm, I., and Krasner, S. W. 1995. Effects of bromide and NOM on by-product formation. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 87:106-115.
117. Najm, I., and Trussell, R. R. 2000. NDMA formation in water and waste water. Proceedings of the AWWA Water Quality Technology Conference, Salt Lake City, November 2000. http://www.harza.com/pdf/NDMA-formation.pdf.
118. Narotsky, M. G., Pegram, R. A., and Kavlock, R. J. 1997. Effect of dosing vehicle on the developmental toxicity of bromodichloromethane and carbon tetrachloride in rats. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 40:30-36.
119. National Cancer Institute. 1978. Bioassay of chloropicrin for possible carcinogenicity. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute, U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Carcinogenesis Technical Report Series No. 65, DHEW Publication No. (NIH) 78-1315.
120. National Research Council. 1998. Managing disinfection by-products in reuse systems. In Issues in potable reuse: The viability of augmenting drinking water supplies with reclaimed wastewater, pp. 53-58. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
121. National Toxicology Program. 1987. Toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of bromodichloromethane (CAS No. 75-27-4) in F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice (Gavage studies). Technical Report Series No. 321, NIH Publication No. 88-2537, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Research Triangle Park, NC: National Toxicology Program. http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ ntp/htdocs/LT-rpts/ tr321.pdf.
122. National Toxicology Program. 2005. Toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of sodium chlorate in (CAS No. 7775-09-9) F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice (Drinking water studies). Technical Report Series No. 517, NIH No. 06-4457, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Research Triangle Park, NC: National Toxicology Program. http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/files/517-Web.pdf.
123. National Toxicology Program. 2006a. Short-term reproductive and developmental toxicity of bromodichloromethane administered in the drinking water to Sprague-Dawley rats. NTP Study No.RDGT94017, Abstract, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Research Triangle Park, NC: National Toxicology Program. http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/index.cfm?objectid=070EC97E-B871- 16C6-1C7596B55DF73B20 (accessed April 10, 2006).
124. National Toxicology Program. 2006b. Toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of bromodichloromethane (CAS No. 75-27-4) in Male F344/N rats and female B6C3F1 mice (Drinking water studies). Technical Report Series No. 532, NIH No. 06-4468, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Research Triangle Park, NC: National Toxicology Program. http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/files/532-Web. pdf.
125. National Toxicology Program. 2007a. Toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of dibromoacetic (CAS No. 631-64-1) Acid in F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice (Drinking water studies), Technical Report Series No. 537, NIH No. 07-4475, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Research Triangle Park, NC: National Toxicology Program. http://ntp.niehs.gov/files/537-FINAL-web.pdf.
126. National Toxicology Program. 2007b. Toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of dibromoacetonitrile in F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice (Drinking water studies). Technical Report Series No. 544, CAS No. 3252-43-5. Washington, DC: National Toxicology Program.
127. National Toxicology Program. 2008. Toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of bromochloroacetic acid in F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice (Drinking water studies), Draft. Technical Report Series No. 549, CAS No. 5589-96-8. Washington, DC: National Toxicology Program. http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ index.cfm?objectid=82F00224-F1F6-975E-7C0A4D903E12624D. http:// ntp.niehs.nih.gov/index.cfm?objectid=78C509C7-F1F6-975E-7B373E41 E8D5E3AD Accessed 10/10/08.
128. Nieuwenhuijsen, M. J., Toledano, M. B., Eaton, N. E., Fawell, J., and Elliott, P. 2000. Chlorination disinfection byproducts in water and their association with adverse reproductive outcomes: A review. Occup. Environ. Med. 57:73-83.
129. Nikolaou, A. D., Golfinopoulos, S. K., Lekkas, T. D., and Kostopoulou, M. N. 2004. DBP levels in chlorinated drinking water: Effect of humic substances. Environ. Monit. Assess. 93:301-319.
130. Nightingale, Z. D., Lancha, A. H., Jr., Handelman, S. K., Dolnikowski, G. G., Busse, S. C., Dratz, E. A., Blumberg, J. B., and Handelman, G. J. 2000. Relative reactivity of lysine and other peptide-bound amino acids to oxidation by hypochlorite. Free Radical Biol. Med. 29:425-433.
131. Olin A. C., Granung, G., Hagberg, S., Adriansson, M., Brisman, J., Dalander, O., Karlsson, B., and Toren, K. 2002. Respiratory health among bleachery workers exposed to ozone and chlorine dioxide. Scand. J. Work Environ Health 28:117-123.
132. Oliver, B. G. 1980. Effect of temperature, pH, and bromide concentration on the trihalomethane reaction of chlorine with aquatic humic material. In Water chlorination: Environmental impact and health effects, vol. 3, eds. R. L. Jolley, W. A. Brungs, R. B. Cumming, and V. A. Jacobs, pp. 141-149. Ann Arbor, MI: Ann Arbor Science.
133. Orme, J., Taylor, D. H., Laurie, R. D., and Bull, R. J. 1985. Effects of chlorine dioxide on thyroid function in neonatal rats. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health. 15:315-322.
134. Parodi, S., Taningher, M., Russo, P., Pala, M., Vecchio, D., Fassina, G., and Santi, L. 1983. Quantitative predictivity of the transformation in vitro assay compared with the Ames test. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 12:483-510.
135. Parrish, J. M., Austin, E. W., Stevens, D. K., Kinder, D. H., and Bull, R. J. 1996. Haloacetate-induced oxidative damage to the DNA in the liver of male B6C3F1 mice. Toxicology 110:103-111.
136. Pegram, R. A., Andersen, M. E., Warren, S. H., Ross, T. M., and Claxton, L. D. 1997. Glutathione S-transferase-mediated mutagenicity of trihalomethanes in Salmonella typhimurium: Contrasting results with bromodichloromethane and chloroform. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 144:183-188.
137. Pereira, M. A., Lin, L.-H., and Mattox, J. K. 1984. Haloacetonitrile excretion as thiocyanate and inhibition of dimethylnitrosamine demethylase: A proposed metabolic scheme. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 13:633-641.
138. Plewa, M. J., Wagner, E. D., Jazwierska, P., Richardson, S. D., Chen, P. H., and McKague, A. B. 2004. Halonitromethane drinking water disinfection by-products: Chemical characterization and mammalian cell cytotoxicity and genotoxicity. Environ. Sci. Technol. 38:62-68.
139. Poon, R., Chu, I., LeBel, G., Yagminas, A., and Valli, V. E. 2003. Effects of dibromoacetonitrile on rats following 13-week drinking water exposure. Food Chem. Toxicol. 41:1051-1061.
140. Radomski, J. L., Greenwald, D., Hearn, W. L., Block, N. L., and Woods, F. M. 1978. Nitrosamine formation in bladder infections and its role in the etiology of bladder cancer. J. Urol. 120:48-50.
141. Reckhow, D. A., and Singer, P. C. 1985. Mechanisms of organic halide formation during fulvic acid chlorination and implications with respect to ozone. In Water chlorination: Chemistry, environmental impact and health effects, vol. 5, eds. R. L. Jolley, R. J. Bull, W. P. Davis, S. Katz, M. H. Roberts, Jr., and V. A. Jacobs, pp. 1229-1257. Chelsea, MI: Lewis.
142. Richardson, S. D. 1998. Drinking water disinfection by-products. In the encyclopedia of environmental analysis and remediation, vol. 3, ed., R. A. Meyers, pp. 1398-1421. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
143. Richardson, S. D., Thruston, A. D., Jr., Caughran, T. V., Chen, P. H., Collette, T. W., Floyd, T. L., Schenck, K. M., Lykins, B. W., Jr., Sun, G.-R., and Majetich, G. 1999. Identification of new ozone disinfection byproducts in drinking water. Environ. Sci. Technol. 33:3368-3377.
144. Richardson, S. D., Plewa, M. J., Wagner, E. D., Schoeny, R., and DeMarini, D. M. 2007. Occurrence, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity of regulated and emerging disinfection by-products in drinking water: A review and a roadmap for research. Mutat. Res. 636:178-242.
145. Richardson, S.D., Thurston, A.D., Krasner, S.W., Weinberg, H.S., Mltner, R.J., Schneck, K.M., Narotsky, M.G., mcKague, AB., and Simmons, J.E. 2008. Integrated disinfection by-products mixtures research: Comprehensive characterization of water concentrates prepared from chlorinated and ozonated/postchlorinated drinking water. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A 71:1165-1186
146. Robinson, M., Bull, R. J., Olson, G. R., and Stober, J. 1989. Carcinogenic activity associated with halogenated acetones and acroleins in the mouse skin assay. Cancer Lett. 48:197-203.
147. Rodriguez, M. J., Serodes, J. B., and Levallois, P. 2004. Behavior of trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids in a drinking water distribution system. Water Res. 38:4367-4382.
148. Rodriguez, M. J., Serodes, J., and Roy, D. 2007. Formation and fate of haloacetic acids (HAAs) within the water treatment plant. Water Res. 41: 4222-4232.
149. Rosario-Ortiz, F. L., Snyder, S. A., and Suffet, I. H. 2007. Characterization of dissolved organic matter in drinking water sources impacted by multiple tributaries. Water Res. 41:4115-4128.
150. Rosen, J. D., Segall, Y., and Casida, J. E. 1980. Mutagenic potency of haloacroleins and related compounds. Mutat. Res. 78:113-119.
151. Sadiq, R., and Rodriguez, M. J. 2004. Fuzzy synthetic evaluations of disinfection by-products - A risk based indexing system. J. Environ. Manage. 73:1-13.
152. Savitz, D. A., Singer, P. C., Herring, A. H., Hartmann, K. E., Weinberg, H. S., and Makarushka, C. 2006. Exposure to drinking water disinfection byproducts and pregnancy loss. Am. J. Epidemiol. 164:1043-1051.
153. Schenck, K. M., Sivagnasen, M., and Rice, G. 2009. Correlations of water quality parameters with mutagenicity of chlorinated drinking water samples. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A. 72:461-467.
154. Schlosser, P. M., Lilly, P. D., Conolly, R. B., Janszen, D. B., and Kimbell, J. S. 2003. Benchmark dose risk assessment for formaldehyde using airflow modeling and a single-compartment, DNA-protein cross-link dosimetry model to estimate human equivalent doses. Risk Anal. 23:473-487.
155. Segall, Y., Kimmel, E. C., Dohn, D. R., and Casida, J. E. 1985. 3-Substituted 2-halopropenals: mutagenicity, detoxification and formation from 3-substituted 2,3-dihalopropanal promutagens. Mutat. Res. 158:61-68.
156. Shih, K. L., and Lederberg, J. 1976. Chloramine mutagenesis in Bacillus subtilis. Science 192:1141-1143.
157. Shukairy, H. M., Miltner, R. J., and Summers, R. S. 1995. Bromide's effect on DBP formation, speciation and control: Part 2, biotreatment. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 87:71-82.
158. Simmons, J. E., Teuschler, L. K., and Gennings, C. 2001. The toxicology of disinfection by-product mixtures: methods for multi-chemical assessment, present research efforts, and future research needs. In Microbial pathogens and disinfection by-products in drinking water: Health effects and management of risks, eds. G. F. Craun, F. S. Hauchman, and D. E. Robinson, pp. 325-340. Washington, DC: ILSI Press.
159. Singer, G. M., Lijinsky, W., Buettner, L., and McClusky, G. A. 1981. Relationship of rat urinary metabolites of N-nitrosomethyl-N-alkylamine to bladder carcinogenesis. Cancer Res. 41:4942-4946.
160. Singer, P. C. 1994. Control of disinfection by-products in drinking water. J. Environ. Eng. 120:727-744.
161. Singer, P. C., Obolensky, A., and Greiner, A. 1995. DBPs in chlorinated North Carolina drinking waters. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 87: 83-92.
162. Smith, M. K., Randall, J. L., Stober, J. A., and Read, E. J. 1989. Developmental toxicity of dichloroacetonitrile: A by-product of drinking water chlorination. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 12:765-772.
163. Sohn, J., Amy, G., and Yoon, Y. 2007. Process-train profiles of NOM through a drinking water treatment plant. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 99:145-153.
164. Solarik, G., Summers, Sohn, J., Swanson, W. J., Chowdhury, Z. K., and Amy, G. L. 2000. Extensions and verifications of the water treatment model for DBP formation. In Natural organic matter and disinfection by-products: Characterization and control in drinking water, eds. S. E. Barrett, S.W. Krasner, and G. L. Amy, pp. 47-66. American Chemical Society Symposium Series Publication No. 761. Washington, DC: ACS.
165. Stauber, A. J., and Bull, R. J. 1997. Differences in phenotype and cell replicative behavior of hepatic tumors induced by dichloroacetate (DCA) and trichloroacetate (TCA). Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 144:235-246.
166. Stauber, A. J., Bull, R. J., and Thrall, B. D. 1998. Dichloroacetate and trichloroacetate promote clonal expansion of anchorage-independent hepatocytes in vivo and in vitro. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 150:287-294.
167. Stevens, A. A., Moore, L. A., and Miltner, R. J. 1989. Formation and control of non-trihalomethane disinfection by-products. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 81:54-60.
168. Summers, R. S., Hooper, S. M., Shukairy, H. M., Solarik, G., and Owen, D. 1996. Assessing DBP yield: uniform formation conditions. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 88:80-93.
169. Suzuki, N., and Nakanishi, J. 1995. Brominated analogues of MX (3-chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone in chlorinated drinking water. Chemosphere 3:1557-1564.
170. Taylor, D. H., and Pfohl, R. J. 1985. Effects of chlorine dioxide on neurobehavioral development of rats. In Water chlorination: Chemistry, environmental impact and health effects, vol. 5, eds. R. L. Jolley, R. J. Bull, W. P. Davis, S. Katz, M. H. Roberts, Jr., and V. A. Jacobs, pp. 355-364. Chelsea, MI: Lewis.
171. Tennant, R. W., Margolin, B. H., Shelby, M. D., Zeiger, E., Haseman, J. K., Spalding, J., Caspary, W., Resnick, M., Stasiewicz, S., Anderson, B., and Minor, R. 1987. Prediction of chemical carcinogenicity in rodents from in vitro genetic toxicity assays. Science 236:933-941.
172. Thomas, E. L., Jefferson, M. M., Bennett, J. J., and Learn, D. B. 1987. Mutagenic activity of chloramines. Mutat. Res. 188:35-43.
173. Toth, G. P., Long, R. E., Mills, T. S., and Smith, M. K. 1990. Effects of chlorine dioxide on the developing rat brain. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health. 31:29-44.
174. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1989. Disinfection by-products in united states drinking waters: Volume 1-Report. EPA 570/9-90/010a, NTIS #PB90-240078, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
175. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1998. National primary drinking water regulations; Disinfectants and disinfection by-products notice of data availability; Proposed rule 40 CFR parts 141 and 142. Fed. Reg. 63(61):15674-15692. http://www.epa.gov/EPA-WATER/1998/March/Day-31/w8215.htm.
176. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1999. Chloroform mode of action analysis. http://www.epa.gov/sab/chloro00.htm 1999 [cited January 3, 2002].
177. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2001a. Controlling disinfection byproducts and microbial contaminants in drinking water. EPA/600/R-01/ 110, Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development. http://www.epa.gov/nrmrl/pubs/600r01110/ 600r01110.pdf.
178. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2001b. Integrated Risk Information System Assessment for Chloroform. http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/iris/ index.cfm. Accessed 9/4/08.
179. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2002. The occurrence of disinfection by-products (DBPs) of health concern in drinking water: Results of a nationwide occurrence study. EPA/600/R-02/068. Athens, GA: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Exposure Research Laboratory. http://www.epa.gov/athens/publications/reports/EPA-600-R02-068.pdf.
180. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2003. Health risks to fetuses, infants, and children: Proposed stage 2 disinfectant/disinfection byproducts: A review. EPA/822/R-03/010. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water.
181. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2005. Guidelines for carcinogen risk assessment. EPA/630/P-03/001F. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Risk Assessment Forum. http://www.epa.gov/ncea/iris/ cancer032505-final.pdf.
182. Vartianen, T., Liimatainen, A., Kauranen, P., and Hiisvirta, L. 1988. Relations between drinking water mutagenicity and water quality parameters. Chemosphere 17:189-202.
183. von Gunten, U. 2003. Ozonation of drinking water: Part II. Disinfection and by-product formation in presence of bromide, iodide, or chlorine. Water Res. 37:1469-1487.
184. Waller, K., Swan, S. H., DeLorenze, G., and Hopkins, B. 1998. Trihalomethanes in drinking water and spontaneous abortion. Epidemiology 9:134-140.
185. Watt, B. E., Malcolm, R. L., Hayes, M. H. B., Clark, N. W. E., and Chipman, J. K. 1996. Chemistry and potential mutagenicity of humic substances in waters from different watersheds in Britain and Ireland. Water Res. 30:1502-1516.
186. Weinberg, H. S., Delcomyn, C. A., and Unanam, V. 2003. Bromate in chlorinated drinking water. Occurrence and Implication for future regulation. Environ. Sci. Technol. 37:3104-3110.
187. Woo, Y. T., Lai, D., McLain, J. L., Manibusan, M. K., and Dellarco, V. 2002. Use of mechanism-based structure-activity relationships analysis in carcinogenic potential ranking for drinking water disinfection by-products. Environ. Health Perspect. 110(suppl. 1):75-87.
188. Wolff, J. 1998. Perchlorate and the thyroid gland. Pharmacol. Rev. 50:89-105.
189. Wright, J. M., Schwartz, J., Vartianinen, T., Mäki-Paakkanen, J., Altshul, L., Harrington, J. J., and Dockery, D. W. 2002. 3-Chloro-4- (dichloromethyl)-2(5H)-furanone (MX) and mutagenic activity in Massachusetts drinking water. Environ. Health Perspect. 110:157-164.
190. Wright, J. M., Schwartz, J., and Dockery, D. W. 2004. The effect of disinfection by-products and mutagenic activity on birth weight and gestational duration. Environ. Health Perspect. 112: 920-925.
191. Yamazaki, H., Oda, Y., Funae, Y., Imaoka, S., Inui, Y., Guengerich, F. P., and Shimada, T. 1992. Participation of rat liver cytochrome P450 2E1 in the activation of N-nitrosodimethylamine and N-nitrosodiethylamine to products genotoxic in an acetyltransferase-overexpressing Salmonella typhimurium strain (NM2009). Carcinogenesis 13:1789-1994.
192. Zhang, X., Echigo, S., Minear, R. A., and Plewa, M. J. 2000. Characterization and comparison of disinfection by-products of four major disinfectants. In Natural organic matter and disinfection by-products: Characterization and control in drinking water, eds. S. Barrett, S. W. Krasner, and G. Amy, pp. 299-314. ACS Symposium Series No. 761. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society.
193. Zhuo, C., Chengyong, Y., Junhe, L., Huixian, Z., and Jingi, Z. 2001. Factors in the formation of disinfection by-products MX, DCA, and TCA by chlorination of fulvic acid from lake sediments. Chemosphere. 45:379-385.
194. Zierler, S., Feingold, L., Danley, R. A., and Craun, G. 1988. Bladder cancer in Massachusetts related to chlorinated and chloraminated drinking water: A case-control study. Arch. Environ Health. 43:195-200.