Side effects and pitfalls in retinoid therapy

Retinoids and Carotenoids in Dermatology

Volumn , Issue , 2007, Pages 225-248

  Sorg, Olivier ^a   Kuenzli, S ^a   Saurat, J H ^a  

^a GENEVA UNIVERSITY HOSPITALS   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 60749104585     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Chapter

References (176)

1. Schnapf JL, Baylor DA. How photoreceptor cells respond to light. Sci Am 1987; 256: 40-47.
2. Ross SA, McCaffery PJ, Drager UC, et al. Retinoids in embryonal development. Physiol Rev 2000; 80: 1021-1054.
3. Sonneveld E, van der Saag PT. Metabolism of retinoic acid: implications for development and cancer. Int J Vitam Nutr Res 1998; 68: 404-410.
4. Blomhoff R, Green MG, Norum KR. Vitamin A: physiological and biochemical processing. Annu Rev Nutr 1992; 12: 37-57.
5. Sorg O, Tran C, Didierjean J, et al. Ultraviolets et vitamine A cutanée: une cible méconnue. Médecine & Hygiène 2000; 58: 545-549.
6. Okuno M, Kojima S, Matsushima-Nishiwaki R, et al. Retinoids in cancer chemoprevention. Curr Cancer Drug Targets 2004; 4: 285-298.
7. Sporn MB, Roberts AB, Goodman DS. The Retinoids. Biology, Chemistry, and Medicine, 2nd ed. New York: Raven Press, 1994.
8. Bendich A, Zilberboim R. Drug-nutrient interactions and immune function. In: Boullata JI, Armenti VT, eds. Handbook of Drug-Nutrient Interactions. Totowa, New Jersey: Humana Press, 2004: 465.
9. Wiegand UW, Hartmann S, Hummler H. Safety of vitamin A: recent results. Int J Vitam Nutr Res 1998; 68: 411-416.
10. Russell RM. The vitamin A spectrum: from deficiency to toxicity. Am J Clin Nutr 2000; 71: 878-884.
11. Giudice GJ, Fuchs EV. Vitamin A-mediated regulation of keratinocyte differentiation. Methods Enzymol 1990; 190: 18-29.
12. Wolbach SB, Hoewe PR. Tissue changes following deprivation of fat-soluble vitamin A. J Exp Med 1925; 42: 753-778.
13. Kuenzli S, Saurat JH. Retinoids. In: Bolognia JL, Jorizzo JL, Rapini RP, eds. Dermatology. London: Mosby, 2003: Chapter 127.
14. Gollnick H, Ehlert R, Rinck G, et al. Retinoids: an overview of pharmacokinetics and therapeutic value. Methods Enzymol 1990; 190: 291-304.
15. Krasinski SD, Cohn JS, Russell RM, et al. Postprandial plasma vitamin A metabolism in humans: a reassessment of the use of plasma retinyl esters as markers for intestinally derived chylomicrons and their remnants. Metabolism 1990; 39: 357-365.
16. Stauber PM, Sherry B, VanderJagt DJ, et al. A longitudinal study of the relationship between vitamin A supplementation and plasma retinol, retinyl esters, and liver enzyme activities in a healthy elderly population. Am J Clin Nutr 1991; 54: 878-883.
17. Wiegand UW, Chou RC. Pharmacokinetics of oral isotretinoin. J Am Acad Dermatol 1998; 39: S8-S12.
18. Boskovic G, Twining SS. Retinol and retinaldehyde specifically increase alpha1- proteinase inhibitor in the human cornea. Biochem J 1997; 322(Pt 3): 751-756.
19. Vogel S, Gamble MV, Blaner WS. Biosynthesis, absorptiom, metabolism and transport of retinoids. In: Nau H, Blaner WS, eds. Retinoids The Biochemical and Molecular Basis of Vitamin A and Retinoid Action. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1999.
20. Vahlquist A. Vitamin A in human skin: I. Detection and identification of retinoids in normal epidermis. J Invest Dermatol 1982; 79: 89-93.
21. Vahlquist A, Lee JB, Michaëlsson G, et al. Vitamin A in human skin: II. Concentrations of carotene, retinol and dehydroretinol in various components of normal skin. J Invest Dermatol 1982; 79: 94-97.
22. Saurat JH, Sorg O, Didierjean J. New concepts for delivery of topical retinoid activity to human skin. In: Nau H, Blaner WS, eds. Retinoids The Biochemical and Molecular Basis of Vitamin A and Retinoid Action. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1999: 21-538.
23. Blaner WS, Olson JA. Retinol and retinoic acid metabolism. In: Sporn MB, Roberts AB, Goodman DS, eds. The Retinoids Biology, Chemistry, and Medicine. New York: Raven Press, 1994: 229-255.
24. Shen PF. Molecular mechanisms of chemoprevention and therapy of cancer by retinoids. Front Biosci 2004; 9: 2663-2670.
25. Taimi M, Helvig C, Wisniewski J, et al. A novel human cytochrome P450, CYP26C1, involved in metabolism of 9-cis and all-trans isomers of retinoic acid. J Biol Chem 2004; 279: 77-85.
26. Marill J, Cresteil T, Lanotte M, et al. Identification of human cytochrome P450s involved in the formation of all-trans-retinoic acid principal metabolites. Mol Pharmacol 2000; 58: 1341-1348.
27. Nadin L, Murray M. Participation of CYP2C8 in retinoic acid 4-hydroxylation in human hepatic microsomes. Biochem Pharmacol 1999; 58: 1201-1208.
28. Miller VA, Rigas JR, Muindi JR, et al. Modulation of all-trans retinoic acid pharmacokinetics by liarozole. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 1994; 34: 522-526.
29. Estey E, Koller C, Tsimberidou AM, et al. Potential curability of newly diagnosed acute promyelocytic leukemia without use of chemotherapy: the example of liposomal all-trans retinoic acid. Blood 2005; 105: 1366-1367.
30. Douer D. Acute promyelocytic leukemia. Curr Treat Options Oncol 2000; 1: 31-40.
31. Wiegand UW, Chou RC. Pharmacokinetics of acitretin and etretinate. J Am Acad Dermatol 1998; 39: S25-S33.
32. Gronhoj Larsen F, Steinkjer B, Jakobsen P, et al. Acitretin is converted to etretinate only during concomitant alcohol intake. Br J Dermatol 2000; 143: 1164-1169.
33. Chou RC, Wyss R, Huselton CA, et al. A potentially new metabolic pathway: ethyl esterification of acitretin. Xenobiotica 1992; 22: 993-1002.
34. Chandraratna RA. Current research and future developments in retinoids: oral and topical agents. Cutis 1998; 61: 40-45.
35. Attar M, Yu D, Ni J, et al. Disposition and biotransformation of the acetylenic retinoid tazarotene in humans. J Pharm Sci 2005; 94: 2246-2255.
36. Jones PH, Burnett RD, Fainaru I, et al. A phase 1 study of tazarotene in adults with advanced cancer. Br J Cancer 2003; 89: 808-815.
37. Howell SR, Shirley MA, Grese TA, et al. Bexarotene metabolism in rat, dog, and human, synthesis of oxidative metabolites, and in vitro activity at retinoid receptors. Drug Metab Dispos 2001; 29: 990-998.
38. Schaefer H, Zesch A. Penetration of vitamin A acid into human skin. Acta Derm Venereol Suppl 1975; 74: 50-55.
39. Kang S, Duell EA, Fisher GJ, et al. Application of retinol to human skin in vivo induces epidermal hyperplasia and cellular retinoid binding proteins characteristics of retinoic acid but without measurable retinoic acid levels or irritation. J Invest Dermatol 1995; 105: 549-556.
40. Duell EA, Åström A, Griffiths CEM, et al. Human skin levels of retinoic acid and cytochrome P-450-derived 4-hydroxyretinoic acid after topical application of retinoic acid in vivo compared to concentrations required to stimulate retinoic acid receptor-mediated transcription in vitro. J Clin Invest 1992; 90: 1269-1274.
41. Duell EA, Derguini F, Kang S, et al. Extraction of human epidermis treated with retinol yields retro-retinoids in addition to free retinol and retinyl esters. J Invest Dermatol 1996; 107: 178-182.
42. Duell EA, Kang S, Voorhees JJ. Unoccluded retinol penetrates human skin in vivo more effectively than unoccluded retinyl palmitate or retinoic acid. J Invest Dermatol 1997; 109: 301-305.
43. Antille C, Tran C, Sorg O, et al. Penetration and metabolism of topical retinoids in ex vivo organ-cultured full-thickness human skin explants. Skin Pharmacol Appl Skin Physiol 2004; 17: 124-128.
44. Antille C, Tran C, Sorg O, et al. Topical beta-carotene is converted to retinyl esters in human skin ex vivo and mouse skin in vivo. Exp Dermatol 2004; 13: 558-561.
45. Didierjean L, Carraux P, Grand D, et al. Topical retinaldehyde increases skin content of retinoic acid and exerts biological activity in mouse skin. J Invest Dermatol 1996; 107: 714-719.
46. Jensen BK, McGann LA, Kachevsky V, et al. The negligible systemic availability of retinoids with multiple and excessive topical application of isotretinoin 0.05% gel (Isotrex) in patients with acne vulgaris. J Am Acad Dermatol 1991; 24: 425-428.
47. Sass JO, Masgrau E, Piletta PA, et al. Plasma retinoids after topical use of retinaldehyde on human skin. Skin Pharmacol 1996; 9: 322-326.
48. Nau H. Embryotoxicity and teratogenicity of topical retinoic acid. Skin Pharmacol 1993; 6(suppl): 35-44.
49. Santana D, Bun H, Joachim J, et al. Plasma concentrations after three different doses of topical isotretinoin. Skin Pharmacol 1994; 7: 140-144.
50. Gollnick HP, Krautheim A. Topical treatment in acne: current status and future aspects. Dermatology 2003; 206: 29-36.
51. Tran C, Kasraee B, Grand D, et al. Pharmacology of RALGA, a mixture of retinaldehyde and glycolic acid. Dermatology 2005; 210(suppl 1): 6-13.
52. Tran C, Sorg O, Carraux P, et al. Topical delivery of retinoids counteracts the UVBinduced epidermal vitamin A depletion in hairless mouse. Photochem Photobiol 2001; 73: 425-431.
53. Sorg O, Tran C, Saurat JH. Cutaneous vitamins A and E in the context of ultravioletor chemically-induced oxidative stress. Skin Pharmacol 2001; 14: 363-372.
54. Waugh J, Noble S, Scott LJ. Adapalene: a review of its use in the treatment of acne vulgaris. Drugs 2004; 64: 1465-1478.
55. Allec J, Chatelus A, Wagner N. Skin distribution and pharmaceutical aspects of adapalene gel. J Am Acad Dermatol 1997; 36: S119-S125.
56. Menter A. Pharmacokinetics and safety of tazarotene. J Am Acad Dermatol 2000; 43: S31-S35.
57. Saurat JH. Side effects of systemic retinoids and their clinical management. J Am Acad Dermatol 1993; 27: 523-528.
58. Vivat-Hannah V, Zusi FC. Retinoids as therapeutic agents: today and tomorrow. Mini Rev Med Chem 2005; 5: 755-760.
59. Allen LH, Haskell M. Estimating the potential for vitamin A toxicity in women and young children. J Nutr 2002; 132: 2907S-2919S.
60. Hathcock JN, Hattan DG, Jenkins MY, et al. Evaluation of vitamin A toxicity. Am J Clin Nutr 1990; 52: 183-202.
61. Dolk HM, Nau H, Hummler H, et al. Dietary vitamin A and teratogenic risk: European Teratology Society discussion paper. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1999; 83: 31-36.
62. Collins MD, Mao GE. Teratology of retinoids. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 1999; 39: 399-430.
63. Coberly S, Lammer E, Alashari M. Retinoic acid embryopathy: case report and review of literature. Pediatr Pathol Lab Med 1996; 16: 823-836.
64. Adams J, Lammer EJ. Relationship between dysmorphology and neuro-psychological function in children exposed to isotretinoin “in utero.” In: Fuji T, Boer GJ, eds. Functional Neuroteratology of Short-Term Exposure to Drugs. Tokyo: Teiko University Press, 1991: 159-170.
65. Colbert MC. Retinoids and cardiovascular developmental defects. Cardiovasc Toxicol 2002; 2: 25-39.
66. Lott IT, Bocian M, Pribram HW, et al. Fetal hydrocephalus and ear anomalies associated with maternal use of isotretinoin. J Pediatr 1984; 105: 597-600.
67. Rizzo R, Lammer EJ, Parano E, et al. Limb reduction defects in humans associated with prenatal isotretinoin exposure. Teratology 1991; 44: 599-604.
68. Kochhar DM, Shealy YF, Penner JD, et al. Retinamides: hydrolytic conversion of retinoylglycine to retinoic acid in pregnant mice contributes to teratogenicity. Teratology 1992; 45: 175-185.
69. Nau H, Chahoud I, Dencker L, et al. Teratogenicity of vitamin A and retinoids. In: Blomhoff R, ed. Vitamin A in Health and Disease. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1994: 615-664.
70. Shalita AR. Mucocutaneous and systemic toxicity of retinoids: monitoring and management. Dermatologica 1987; 175(suppl 1): 151-157.
71. Hommel L, Geiger JM, Harms M, et al. Sebum excretion rate in subjects treated with oral all-trans-retinoic acid. Dermatology 1996; 193: 127-130.
72. Lebowitz MA, Berson DS. Ocular effects of oral retinoids. J Am Acad Dermatol 1988; 19: 209-211.
73. Carey BM, Parkin GJ, Cunliffe WJ, et al. Skeletal toxicity with isotretinoin therapy: a clinico-radiological evaluation. Br J Dermatol 1988; 119: 609-614.
74. Tfelt-Hansen P, Knudsen B, Petersen E, et al. Spinal cord compression after longterm etretinate. Lancet 1989; 2: 325-326.
75. Childs SG. Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis: Forestier’s disease. Orthop Nurs 2004; 23: 375-382.
76. Kindmark A, Rollman O, Mallmin H, et al. Oral isotretinoin therapy in severe acne induces transient suppression of biochemical markers of bone turnover and calcium homeostasis. Acta Derm Venereol 1998; 78: 266-269.
77. DiGiovanna JJ. Isotretinoin effects on bone. J Am Acad Dermatol 2001; 45: S176-S182.
78. DiGiovanna JJ, Sollitto RB, Abangan DL, et al. Osteoporosis is a toxic effect of long-term etretinate therapy. Arch Dermatol 1995; 131: 1263-1267.
79. Van Dooren-Greebe RJ, Lemmens JA, De Boo T, et al. Prolonged treatment with oral retinoids in adults: no influence on the frequency and severity of spinal abnormalities. Br J Dermatol 1996; 134: 71-76.
80. DiGiovanna JJ, Langman CB, Tschen EH, et al. Effect of a single course of isotretinoin therapy on bone mineral density in adolescent patients with severe, recalcitrant, nodular acne. J Am Acad Dermatol 2004; 51: 709-717.
81. Landau M, Mesterman R, Ophir J, et al. Clinical significance of markedly elevated serum creatine kinase levels in patients with acne on isotretinoin. Acta Derm Venereol 2001; 81: 350-352.
82. Heudes AM, Laroche L. Muscular damage during isotretinoin treatment. Ann Dermatol Vénéréol 1998; 125: 94-97.
83. Lister RK, Lecky BR, Lewis-Jones MS, et al. Acitretin-induced myopathy. Br J Dermatol 1996; 134: 989-990.
84. Chroni E, Georgiou S, Monastirli A, et al. Effects of short-term oral acitretin therapy on peripheral nerve function: a prospective neurological and neurophysiological study. Acta Derm Venereol 2001; 81: 423-425.
85. Uddin AB. Drug-induced pseudotumor cerebri. Clin Neuropharmacol 2003; 26: 236-238.
86. Bonnetblanc JM, Hugon J, Dumas M, et al. Intracranial hypertension with etretinate. Lancet 1983; 2: 974.
87. Lee AG. Pseudotumor cerebri after treatment with tetracycline and isotretinoin for acne. Cutis 1995; 55: 165-168.
88. Chu A, Cunliffe WJ. The inter-relationship between isotretinoin/acne and depression. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 1999; 12: 263.
89. Wysowski DK, Swartz L. Relationship between headache and depression in users of isotretinoin. Arch Dermatol 2005; 141: 640-641.
90. Chia CY, Lane W, Chibnall J, et al. Isotretinoin therapy and mood changes in adolescents with moderate to severe acne: a cohort study. Arch Dermatol 2005; 141: 557-560.
91. Rioux L, Arnold SE. The expression of retinoic acid receptor alpha is increased in the granule cells of the dentate gyrus in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res 2005; 133: 13-21.
92. Krezel W, Ghyselinck N, Samad TA, et al. Impaired locomotion and dopamine signaling in retinoid receptor mutant mice. Science 1998; 279: 863-867.
93. Krezel W, Kastner P, Chambon P. Differential expression of retinoid receptors in the adult mouse central nervous system. Neuroscience 1999; 89: 1291-1300.
94. Maret S, Franken P, Dauvilliers Y, et al. Retinoic acid signaling affects cortical synchrony during sleep. Science 2005; 310: 111-113.
95. Safran AB, Haliaoua B, Roth A, et al. Ocular side-effects of oral treatment with retinoids. In: JH S, ed. Retinoids: 10 Years On. Basel: Karger, 1991: 315-326.
96. Lee WB, Hamilton SM, Harris JP, et al. Ocular complications of hypovitaminosis a after bariatric surgery. Ophthalmology 2005; 112: 1031-1034.
97. Danby FW. Night blindness, vitamin A deficiency, and isotretinoin psychotoxicity. Dermatol Online J 2003; 9: 30.
98. Duvic M, Hymes K, Heald P, et al. Bexarotene is effective and safe for treatment of refractory advanced-stage cutaneous T-cell lymphoma: multinational phase II-III trial results. J Clin Oncol 2001; 19: 2456-2471.
99. Sherman SI, Gopal J, Haugen BR, et al. Central hypothyroidism associated with retinoid X receptor-selective ligands. New Engl J Med 1999; 340: 1075-1079.
100. Sherman SI. Etiology, diagnosis, and treatment recommendations for central hypothyroidism associated with bexarotene therapy for cutaneous T-cell lymphoma. Clin Lymphoma 2003; 3: 249-252.
101. Mozsik G, Nagy Z, Nagy A, et al. Leiden mutation (as genetic) and environmental (retinoids) sequences in the acute and chronic inflammatory and premalignant colon disease in human gastrointestinal tract. J Physiol Paris 2001; 95: 489-494.
102. Gold MH, Roenigk HH Jr, Vanagunas A. The retinoids and inflammatory bowel disease. Arch Dermatol 1988; 124: 325-326.
103. Liebler S, Uberschar B, Kubert H, et al. The renal retinoid system: time-dependent activation in experimental glomerulonephritis. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2004; 286: F458-F465.
104. Schaier M, Liebler S, Schade K, et al. Retinoic acid receptor alpha and retinoid X receptor specific agonists reduce renal injury in established chronic glomerulonephritis of the rat. J Mol Med 2004; 82: 116-125.
105. Cribier B, Welsch M, Heid E. Renal impairment probably induced by etretinate. Dermatology 1992; 185: 266-268.
106. Vahlquist A. Etretinate pharmacokinetics in chronic renal failure. A preliminary study in psoriasis patients. Dermatologica 1987; 175: 224-228.
107. de Sevaux RG, Smit JV, de Jong EM, et al. Acitretin treatment of premalignant and malignant skin disorders in renal transplant recipients: clinical effects of a randomized trial comparing two doses of acitretin. J Am Acad Dermatol 2003; 49: 407-412.
108. Smit JV, de Sevaux RG, Blokx WA, et al. Acitretin treatment in (pre)malignant skin disorders of renal transplant recipients: histologic and immunohistochemical effects. J Am Acad Dermatol 2004; 50: 189-196.
109. Staels B. Regulation of lipid and lipoprotein metabolism by retinoids. J Am Acad Dermatol 2001; 45: S158-S167.
110. Roenigk HH Jr, Callen JP, Guzzo CA, et al. Effects of acitretin on the liver. J Am Acad Dermatol 1999; 41: 584-588.
111. Voorhees J, Roenigk HH, Lowe NJ, et al. Retinoids and therapy for psoriasis. Video J Dermatol 1987; 2(suppl): 5-10.
112. Ross AC. Retinoid production and catabolism: role of diet in regulating retinol esterification and retinoic acid oxidation. J Nutr 2003; 133: 291S-296S.
113. Duvic M, Martin AG, Kim Y, et al. Phase 2 and 3 clinical trial of oral bexarotene (Targretin capsules) for the treatment of refractory or persistent early-stage cutaneous T-cell lymphoma. Arch Dermatol 2001; 137: 581-593.
114. Zou A, Elgort MG, Allegretto EA. Retinoid X receptor (RXR) ligands activate the human 25-hydroxyvitamin D3-24-hydroxylase promoter via RXR heterodimer binding to two vitamin D-responsive elements and elicit additive effects with 1,25- dihydroxyvitamin D3. J Biol Chem 1997; 272: 19027-19034.
115. Li D, Li T, Wang F, et al. Functional evidence for retinoid X receptor (RXR) as a nonsilent partner in the thyroid hormone receptor/RXR heterodimer. Mol Cell Biol 2002; 22: 5782-5792.
116. Cabrero A, Laguna JC, Vazquez M. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors and the control of inflammation. Curr Drug Targets Inflamm Allergy 2002; 1: 243-248.
117. Moore JT, Kliewer SA. Use of the nuclear receptor PXR to predict drug interactions. Toxicology 2000; 153: 1-10.
118. Yue L, Ye F, Gui C, et al. Ligand-binding regulation of LXR/RXR and LXR/PPAR heterodimerizations: SPR technology-based kinetic analysis correlated with molecular dynamics simulation. Protein Sci 2005; 14: 812-822.
119. Kang S, Li XY, Duell EA, et al. The retinoid X receptor agonist 9-cis-retinoic acid and the 24-hydroxylase inhibitor ketoconazole increase activity of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in human skin in vivo. J Invest Dermatol 1997; 108: 513-518.
120. Katz HI, Waalen J, Leach EE. Acitretin in psoriasis: an overview of adverse effects. J Am Acad Dermatol 1999; 41: S7-S12.
121. Angotti M, Hartmann RW, Kirby AJ, et al. Effect of 2-(4-aminophenylmethyl)-6- hydroxy-3, 4-dihydronaphthalen-1(2H)-one on all-trans and 13-cis-retinoic acid levels in plasma quantified by high perfomance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2005; 20: 219-226.
122. Njar VC, Gediya L, Purushottamachar P, et al. Retinoic acid metabolism blocking agents (RAMBAs) for treatment of cancer and dermatological diseases. Bioorg Med Chem 2006; 14: 4323-4340.
123. Verschoore M, Langner A, Wolska H, et al. Efficacy and safety of CD 271 alcoholic gels in the topical treatment of acne vulgaris. Br J Dermatol 1991; 124: 368-371.
124. Yu Z, Sefton J, Lew-Kaya D, et al. Pharmacokinetics of tazarotene cream 0.1% after a single dose and after repeat topical applications at clinical or exaggerated application rates in patients with acne vulgaris or photodamaged skin. Clin Pharmacokinet 2003; 42: 921-929.
125. Leyden J, Grove G, Zerweck C. Facial tolerability of topical retinoid therapy. J Drugs Dermatol 2004; 3: 641-651.
126. Verschoore M, Bouclier M, Czernielewski J, et al. Topical retinoids. Their uses in dermatology. Dermatol Clin 1993; 11: 107-115.
127. Leyden JJ. Topical treatment of acne vulgaris: retinoids and cutaneous irritation. J Am Acad Dermatol 1998; 38: S1-S4.
128. Shin SC, Kim HJ, Oh IJ, et al. Development of tretinoin gels for enhanced transdermal delivery. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2005; 60: 67-71.
129. Embil K, Nacht S. The Microsponge Delivery System (MDS): a topical delivery system with reduced irritancy incorporating multiple triggering mechanisms for the release of actives. J Microencapsul 1996; 13: 575-588.
130. Jelvehgari M, Siahi-Shadbad MR, Azarmi S, et al. The microsponge delivery system of benzoyl peroxide: preparation, characterization and release studies. Int J Pharm 2006; 308: 124-132.
131. Smit JV, de Jong EM, de Jongh GJ, et al. Topical all-trans retinoic acid does not influence minimal erythema doses for UVB light in normal skin. Acta Derm Venereol 2000; 80: 66-67.
132. Campanelli A, Naldi L. A retrospective study of the effect of long-term topical application of retinaldehyde (0.05%) on the development of actinic keratosis. Dermatology 2002; 205: 146-152.
133. Kligman LH. Retinoic acid and photocarcinogenesis. A controversy. Photodermatol 1987; 4: 88-101.
134. Marks R. Retinoids in Cutaneous Malignancy, Vol. 619. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific, 1991.
135. Alirezai M, Dupuy P, Amblard P, et al. Clinical evaluation of topical isotretinoin in the treatment of actinic keratoses. J Am Acad Dermatol 1994; 30: 447-451.
136. Misiewicz J, Sendagorta E, Golebiowska A, et al. Topical treatment of multiple actinic keratoses of the face with arotinoid methyl sulfone (Ro 14-9706) cream versus tretinoin cream: a double-blind, comparative study. J Am Acad Dermatol 1991; 24: 448-451.
137. Ferguson J, Johnson BE. Photosensitivity due to retinoids: clinical and laboratory studies. Br J Dermatol 1986; 115: 275-283.
138. Berne B, Nilsson M, Vahlquist A. UV irradiation and cutaneous vitamin A: An experimental study in rabbit and human skin. J Invest Dermatol 1984; 83: 401-404.
139. Berne B, Vahlquist A, Fischer T, et al. UV-treatment of uraemic pruritus reduces the vitamin A content of the skin. Eur J Clin Invest 1984; 14: 203-206.
140. Sorg O, Tran C, Carraux P, et al. Retinol and retinyl ester epidermal pools are not identically sensitive to UVB irradiation and antioxidant protective effect. Dermatology 1999; 199: 302-307.
141. Sorg O, Tran C, Carraux P, et al. Oxidative stress-independent depletion of epidermal vitamin A by UVA. J Invest Dermatol 2002; 118: 513-518.
142. Antille C, Tran C, Sorg O, et al. Vitamin A exerts a photoprotective action in skin by absorbing UVB radiations. J Invest Dermatol 2003; 121: 1163-1167.
143. Young AM, Gregoriadis G. Photolysis of retinol in liposomes and its protection with tocopherol and oxybenzone. Photochem Photobiol 1996; 63: 344-352.
144. Cherng SH, Xia Q, Blankenship LR, et al. Photodecomposition of retinyl palmitate in ethanol by UVA light-formation of photodecomposition products, reactive oxygen species, and lipid peroxides. Chem Res Toxicol 2005; 18: 129-138.
145. Ceugniet C, Lepetit L, De Viguerie NL, et al. Single-run analysis of retinal isomers, retinol and photooxidation products by high-performance liquid chromatography. J Chromatog A 1998; 810: 237-240.
146. Fu PP, Cheng SH, Coop L, et al. Photoreaction, Phototoxicity, and Photocarcinogenicity of Retinoids. J Environ Sci Health Part C Environ Carcinog Ecotoxicol Rev 2003; 21: 165-197.
147. Kligman LH, Crosby MJ. Topical tretinoin enhances corticosteroid-induced inhibition of tumorigenesis in hairless mice previously exposed to solar simulating radiation. Cancer Lett 1996; 107: 217-222.
148. Athar M, Agarwal R, Wang ZY, et al. All-trans retinoic acid protects against conversion of chemically induced and ultraviolet B radiation-induced skin papillomas to carcinomas. Carcinogenesis 1991; 12: 2325-2329.
149. Mrass P, Rendl M, Mildner M, et al. Retinoic acid increases the expression of p53 and proapoptotic caspases and sensitizes keratinocytes to apoptosis: a possible explanation for tumor preventive action of retinoids. Cancer Res 2004; 64: 6542-6548.
150. Fanjul A, Dawson MI, Hobbs PD, et al. A new class of retinoids with selective inhibition of AP-1 inhibits proliferation. Nature 1994; 372: 107-111.
151. Darwiche N, Bazzi H, El-Touni L, et al. Regulation of ultraviolet B radiationmediated activation of AP1 signaling by retinoids in primary keratinocytes. Radiat Res 2005; 163: 296-306.
152. Dedieu S, Lefebvre P. Retinoids interfere with the AP1 signalling pathway in human breast cancer cells. Cell Signal 2006; 18: 889-998.
153. Chen Y, Buck J, Derguini F. Anhydroretinol induces oxidative stress and cell death. Cancer Res 1999; 59: 3985-3990.
154. Dal-Pizzol F, Klamt F, Benfato MS, et al. Retinol supplementation induces oxidative stress and modulates antioxidant enzyme activities in rat sertoli cells. Free Radic Res 2001; 34: 395-404.
155. Halliday GM, Robertson BO, Barnetson RS. Topical retinoic acid enhances, and a dark tan protects, from subedemal solar-simulated photocarcinogenesis. J Invest Dermatol 2000; 114: 923-927.
156. Murata M, Kawanishi S. Oxidative DNA damage by vitamin A and its derivative via superoxide generation. J Biol Chem 2000; 275: 2003-2008.
157. Sorg O, Tran C, Carraux P, et al. Spectral properties of topical retinoids prevent DNA damage and apoptosis after acute UVB exposure in hairless mice. Photochem Photobiol 2005; 81: 830-836.
158. Pinnell SR. Cutaneous photodamage, oxidative stress, and topical antioxidant protection. J Am Acad Dermatol 2003; 48: 1-19; quiz 20-22.
159. Sies H. Oxidative stress. II. Oxidants and Antioxidants. London: Academic Press, 1991.
160. Kohen R, Nyska A. Oxidation of biological systems: oxidative stress phenomena, antioxidants, redox reactions, and methods for their quantification. Toxicol Pathol 2002; 30: 620-650.
161. Sorg O. Oxidative stress: a theoretical model or a biological reality? C R Biol 2004; 327: 649-662.
162. Halliwell B, Gutteridge JMC. Free Radicals in Biology and Medicine, 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
163. Sultana S, Alam A, Sharma S, et al. 13-cis Retinoic acid ameliorates benzoyl peroxide- induced oxidative stress and hyperproliferative response in murine skin: a chemopreventive study. Cancer Detect Prev 2004; 28: 200-207.
164. Ahlemeyer B, Bauerbach E, Plath M, et al. Retinoic acid reduces apoptosis and oxidative stress by preservation of SOD protein level. Free Radic Biol Med 2001; 30: 1067-1077.
165. Ahlemeyer B, Krieglstein J. Inhibition of glutathione depletion by retinoic acid and tocopherol protects cultured neurons from staurosporine-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis. Neurochem Int 2000; 36: 1-5.
166. Kitamura M, Ishikawa Y, Moreno-Manzano V, et al. Intervention by retinoic acid in oxidative stress-induced apoptosis. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2002; 17(suppl 9): 84-87.
167. Samokyszyn VM, Marnett LJ. Inhibition of microsomal lipid peroxidation by 13-cisretinoic acid. Methods Enzymol 1990; 190: 281-288.
168. de Lamirande E, Gagnon C. Impact of reactive oxygen species on spermatozoa: a balancing act between beneficial and detrimental effects. Hum Reprod 1995; 10(suppl 1): 15-21.
169. Eiserich JP, Baldus S, Brennan ML, et al. Myeloperoxidase, a leukocyte-derived vascular NO oxidase. Science 2002; 296: 2391-2394.
170. Fang FC. Perspectives series: host/pathogen interactions. Mechanisms of nitric oxide-related antimicrobial activity. J Clin Invest 1997; 99: 2818-2825.
171. O’Flaherty C, Beorlegui N, Beconi MT. Participation of superoxide anion in the capacitation of cryopreserved bovine sperm. Int J Androl 2003; 26: 109-114.
172. Pandey S, Srivastava R, Pandey S, et al. Effect of vitamin “A” on free radical cascade in pregnancy induced hypertension. Boll Chim Farm 2000; 139: 98-102.
173. Han JY, Liu DD, Lee JJ, et al. 9-cis-retinoic acid treatment increases serum concentrations of alpha-tocopherol in former smokers. Clin Cancer Res 2005; 11: 2305-2311.
174. Albanes D, Heinonen OP, Taylor PR, et al. Alpha-Tocopherol and beta-carotene supplements and lung cancer incidence in the alpha-tocopherol, beta-carotene cancer prevention study: effects of base-line characteristics and study compliance. J Natl Cancer Inst 1996; 88: 1560-1570.
175. Omenn GS, Goodman GE, Thornquist MD, et al. Effects of a combination of beta carotene and vitamin A on lung cancer and cardiovascular disease. New Engl J Med 1996; 334: 1150-1155.
176. Pryor WA. Cigarette smoke radicals and the role of free radicals in chemical carcinogenicity. Environ Health Perspect 1997; 105(suppl 4): 875-882.