The role of MRSA in healthcare-associated pneumonia

Seminars in Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine

Volumn 30, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 52-60

  Lam, Anna P ^a   Wunderink, Richard G ^a  

^a NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Linezolid; Methicillin resistant S. Aureus; Panton valentine leukocidin (PVL); Staphylococcus aureus; Vancomycin

Indexed keywords

ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; BETA LACTAM ANTIBIOTIC; CARBAPENEM; CEPHALOSPORIN; CIPROFLOXACIN; CLINDAMYCIN; CLOXACILLIN; COTRIMOXAZOLE; DALBAVANCIN; DALFOPRISTIN PLUS QUINUPRISTIN; DAPTOMYCIN; DIAMINOPYRIMIDINE; GENTAMICIN; LINEZOLID; MACROLIDE; ORITAVANCIN; OXACILLIN; PANTON VALENTINE LEUKOCIDIN; POLYPEPTIDE ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; RIFAMPICIN; TEFIBAZUMAB; TEICOPLANIN; TELAVANCIN; TIGECYCLINE; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; VANCOMYCIN;

ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; ANTIBIOTIC SENSITIVITY; ANTIBIOTIC THERAPY; AREA UNDER THE CURVE; ARTIFICIAL VENTILATION; BACTERIAL COLONIZATION; BACTERIAL VIRULENCE; CLINICAL TRIAL; COMMUNITY ACQUIRED PNEUMONIA; CONTINUOUS INFUSION; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; DISTRIBUTION VOLUME; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG TREATMENT FAILURE; HEALTH CARE; HUMAN; INFECTION RISK; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; METHICILLIN RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; METHICILLIN RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS INFECTION; MORTALITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; VENTILATOR ASSOCIATED PNEUMONIA; VIRUS INFECTION;

ANTI-INFECTIVE AGENTS; COMMUNITY-ACQUIRED INFECTIONS; CROSS INFECTION; DRUG RESISTANCE, BACTERIAL; GLYCOPEPTIDES; HUMANS; METHICILLIN-RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; OXAZOLIDINONES; PNEUMONIA, BACTERIAL; RISK FACTORS; STAPHYLOCOCCAL INFECTIONS; VIRULENCE;

EID: 60549097217     PISSN: 10693424     EISSN: 10989048     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1055/s-0028-1119809     Document Type: Review

References (121)

1. Noskin GA, Rubin RJ, Schentag JJ, et al. The burden of Staphylococcus aureus infections on hospitals in the United States: an analysis of the 2000 and 2001 Nationwide Inpatient Sample Database. Arch Intern Med 2005;165: 1756-1761
2. Chambers HF. Methicillin resistance in staphylococci: molecular and biochemical basis and clinical implications. Clin Microbiol Rev 1997;10:781-791
3. Fridkin SK. Increasing prevalence of antimicrobial resistance in intensive care units. Crit Care Med 2001;29 (4, Suppl):N64-N68
4. Streit JM, Jones RN, Sader HS, Fritsche TR. Assessment of pathogen occurrences and resistance profiles among infected patients in the intensive care unit: report from the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program (North America, 2001). Int J Antimicrob Agents 2004;24:111-118
5. Fluit AC, Verhoef J, Schmitz FJ. Frequency of isolation and antimicrobial resistance of gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria from patients in intensive care units of 25 European university hospitals participating in the European arm of the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program 1997-1998. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2001;20:617-625
6. Kollef MH, Shorr A, Tabak YP, Gupta V, Liu LZ, Johannes RS. Epidemiology and outcomes of health-care-associated pneumonia: results from a large US database of culture-positive pneumonia. Chest 2005;128:3854-3862
7. Richards MJ, Edwards JR, Culver DH, Gaynes RP. Nosocomial infections in combined medical-surgical intensive care units in the United States. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2000;21:510-515
8. Micek ST, Kollef KE, Reichley RM, Roubinian N, Kollef MH. Health care-associated pneumonia and community-acquired pneumonia: a single-center experience. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2007;51:3568-3573
9. Carratala J, Mykietiuk A, Fernandez-Sabe N, et al. Health care-associated pneumonia requiring hospital admission: epidemiology, antibiotic therapy, and clinical outcomes. Arch Intern Med 2007;167:1393-1399
10. Fagon JY, Chastre J, Domart Y, et al. Nosocomial pneumonia in patients receiving continuous mechanical ventilation: prospective analysis of 52 episodes with use of a protected specimen brush and quantitative culture techniques. Am Rev Respir Dis 1989;139:877-884
11. Wunderink RG, Cammarata SK, Oliphant TH, Kollef MH. Continuation of a randomized, double-blind, multi-center study of linezolid versus vancomycin in the treatment of patients with nosocomial pneumonia. Clin Ther 2003;25: 980-992
12. Rello J, Sole-Violan J, Sa-Borges M, et al. Pneumonia caused by oxacillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus treated with glycopeptides. Crit Care Med 2005;33:1983-1987
13. Rello J, Torres A, Ricart M, et al. Ventilator-associated pneumonia by Staphylococcus aureus: comparison of methi-cillin-resistant and methicillin-sensitive episodes. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994;150(6 Pt 1):1545-1549
14. Gonzalez C, Rubio M, Romero-Vivas J, Gonzalez M, Picazo JJ. Bacteremic pneumonia due to Staphylococcus aureus: a comparison of disease caused by methicillin-resistant and methicillin-susceptible organisms. Clin Infect Dis 1999;29:1171-1177
15. Cosgrove SE, Sakoulas G, Perencevich EN, Schwaber MJ, Karchmer AW, Carmeli Y. Comparison of mortality associated with methicillin-resistant and methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia: a meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis 2003;36:53-59
16. Athanassa Z, Siempos II, Falagas ME. Impact ofmethicillin resistance on mortality in Staphylococcus aureus VAP: a systematic review. Eur Respir J 2008;31:625-632
17. Shorr AF, Combes A, Kollef MH, Chastre J. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus prolongs intensive care unit stay in ventilator-associated pneumonia, despite initially appropriate antibiotic therapy. Crit Care Med 2006;34: 700-706
18. Vidaur L, Planas K, Sierra R, et al. Ventilator-associated pneumonia: impact of organisms on clinical resolution and medical resources utilization. Chest 2008;133:625-632
19. Miller LG, Perdreau-Remington F, Rieg G, et al. Necrot-izing fasciitis caused by community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Los Angeles. N Engl J Med 2005;352:1445-1453
20. Adem PV, Montgomery CP, Husain AN, et al. Staph-ylococcus aureus sepsis and the Waterhouse-Friderichsen syndrome in children. N Engl J Med 2005;353:1245-1251
21. Gillet Y, Issartel B, Vanhems P, et al. Association between Staphylococcus aureus strains carrying gene for Panton-Valentine leukocidin and highly lethal necrotising pneumonia in young immunocompetent patients. Lancet 2002;359: 753-759
22. LaPlante KL, Rybak MJ, Amjad M, Kaatz GW. Antimicrobial susceptibility and staphylococcal chromosomal cassette mec type in community-and hospital-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Pharmacotherapy 2007;27:3-10
23. Herold BC, Immergluck LC, Maranan MC, et al. Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in children with no identified predisposing risk. JAMA 1998;279:593-598
24. Lina G, Piemont Y, Godail-Gamot F, et al. Involvement of Panton-Valentine leukocidin-producing Staphylococcus aureus in primary skin infections and pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis 1999;29:1128-1132
25. Panton PNV. FCO. Staphylococcal toxin. Lancet 1931; 1:506-508
26. Voyich JM, Otto M, Mathema B, et al. Is Panton-Valentine leukocidin the major virulence determinant in community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus disease? J Infect Dis 2006;194:1761-1770
27. Labandeira-Rey M, Couzon F, Boisset S, et al. Staph-ylococcus aureus Panton-Valentine leukocidin causes necrotizing pneumonia. Science 2007;315:1130-1133
28. Vandenesch F, Naimi T, Enright MC, et al. Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus carrying Panton-Valentine leukocidin genes: worldwide emergence. Emerg Infect Dis 2003;9:978-984
29. Daum RS, Ito T, Hiramatsu K, et al. A novel methicillin-resistance cassette in community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates of diverse genetic backgrounds. J Infect Dis 2002;186:1344-1347
30. Francis JS, Doherty MC, Lopatin U, et al. Severe community-onset pneumonia in healthy adults caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus carrying the Panton-Valentine leukocidin genes. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 40:100-107
31. Gillet Y, Vanhems P, Lina G, et al. Factors predicting mortality in necrotizing community-acquired pneumonia caused by Staphylococcus aureus containing Panton-Valentine leukocidin. Clin Infect Dis 2007;45:315-321
32. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in correctional facilities-Georgia, California, and Texas, 2001-2003. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2003;52: 992-996
33. Hageman JC, Uyeki TM, Francis JS, et al. Severe community-acquired pneumonia due to Staphylococcus aureus, 2003-04 influenza season. Emerg Infect Dis 2006;12: 894-899
34. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Outbreaks of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus skin infections-Los Angeles County, California, 2002-2003. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2003;52:88
35. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections among competitive sports participants-Colorado, Indiana, Pennsylvania, and Los Angeles County, 2000-2003. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2003;52:793-795
36. Kaplan SL, Hulten KG, Gonzalez BE, et al. Three-year surveillance of community-acquired Staphylococcus aureus infections in children. Clin Infect Dis 2005;40:1785-1791
37. Frazee BW, Lynn J, Charlebois ED, Lambert L, Lowery D, Perdreau-Remington F. High prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in emergency department skin and soft tissue infections. Ann Emerg Med 2005;45: 311-320
38. Young DM, Harris HW, Charlebois ED, et al. An epidemic of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus soft tissue infections among medically underserved patients. Arch Surg 2004;139:947-951discussion 951-943
39. Kazakova SV, Hageman JC, Matava M, et al. A clone of methicillin- resistant Staphylococcus aureus among professional football players. N Engl J Med 2005;352:468-475
40. Lobo LJ, Wunderink RG. Low mortality in necrotizing CA-MRSA CAP [abstract]. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008;177:A286
41. Saiman L, O'Keefe M, Graham PL III, et al. Hospital transmission of community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus among postpartum women. Clin Infect Dis 2003;37:1313-1319
42. Seybold U, Kourbatova EV, Johnson JG, et al. Emergence of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus USA300 genotype as a major cause of health care-associated blood stream infections. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 42:647-656
43. Benoit SR, Estivariz C, Mogdasy C, et al. Community strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus as potential cause of healthcare-associated infections, Uruguay, 2002-2004. Emerg Infect Dis 2008;14:1216-1223
44. David MD, Kearns AM, Gossain S, Ganner M, Holmes A. Community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: nosocomial transmission in a neonatal unit. J Hosp Infect 2006;64:244-250
45. Gonzalez BE, Rueda AM, Shelburne SA III, Musher DM, Hamill RJ, Hulten KG. Community-associated strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus as the cause of healthcare-associated infection. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2006;27:1051-1056
46. Maree CL, Daum RS, Boyle-Vavra S, Matayoshi K, Miller LG. Community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates causing healthcare-associated infections. Emerg Infect Dis 2007;13:236-242
47. Neofytos D, Kuhn B, Shen S, Hua Zhu X, Jungkind D, Flomenberg P. Emergence of staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec type IV methicillin- resistant Staphylococcus aureus as a cause of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2007;28:1206-1209
48. Rossney AS, Shore AC, Morgan PM, Fitzgibbon MM, O'Connell B, Coleman DC. The emergence and importation of diverse genotypes of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) harboring the Panton-Valentine leukocidin gene (pvl) reveal that pvl is a poor marker for community-acquired MRSA strains in Ireland. J Clin Microbiol 2007;45:2554-2563
49. Deryke CA, Lodise TP Jr, Rybak MJ, McKinnon PS. Epidemiology, treatment, and outcomes of nosocomial bacteremic Staphylococcus aureus pneumonia. Chest 2005; 128:1414-1422
50. Rello J, Sa-Borges M, Correa H, Leal SR, Baraibar J. Variations in etiology of ventilator-associated pneumonia across four treatment sites: implications for antimicrobial prescribing practices. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999; 160:608-613
51. Trouillet JL, Chastre J, Vuagnat A, et al. Ventilator-associated pneumonia caused by potentially drug-resistant bacteria. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998;157:531-539
52. MacDougall C, Powell JP, Johnson CK, Edmond MB, Polk RE. Hospital and community fluoroquinolone use and resistance in Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli in 17 US hospitals. Clin Infect Dis 2005;41:435-440
53. Monnet DL, MacKenzie FM, Lopez-Lozano JM, et al. Antimicrobial drug use and methicillin-resistant Staph-ylococcus aureus, Aberdeen, 1996-2000. Emerg Infect Dis 2004;10:1432-1441
54. Foster TJ. The Staphylococcus aureus ''superbug''. J Clin Invest 2004;114:1693-1696
55. Sanford MD, Widmer AF, Bale MJ, Jones RN, Wenzel RP. Efficient detection and long-term persistence of the carriage of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Infect Dis 1994;19:1123-1128
56. Huang SS, Platt R. Risk of methicillin-resistant Staph-ylococcus aureus infection after previous infection or colonization. Clin Infect Dis 2003;36:281-285
57. Garrouste-Orgeas M, Timsit JF, Kallel H, et al. Colonization with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in ICU patients: morbidity, mortality, and glycopeptide use. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2001;22:687-692
58. von Eiff C, Becker K, Machka K, Stammer H, Peters G. Nasal carriage as a source of Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Study group. N Engl J Med 2001;344:11-16
59. Safdar N, Bradley EA. The risk of infection after nasal colonization with Staphylococcus aureus. Am J Med 2008; 121:310-315
60. Davis KA, Stewart JJ, Crouch HK, Florez CE, Hospenthal DR. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) nares colonization at hospital admission and its effect on subsequent MRSA infection. Clin Infect Dis 2004;39:776-782
61. Ho PL. Carriage of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, ceftazidime-resistant gram-negative bacilli, and vancomycin-resistant enterococci before and after intensive care unit admission. Crit Care Med 2003;31:1175-1182
62. McGahee W, Lowy FD. Staphylococcal infections in the intensive care unit. Semin Respir Infect 2000;15:308-313
63. Zinderman CE, Conner B, Malakooti MA, LaMar JE, Armstrong A, Bohnker BK. Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus among military recruits. Emerg Infect Dis 2004;10:941-944
64. Oztoprak N, Cevik MA, Akinci E, et al. Risk factors for ICU-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections. Am J Infect Control 2006;34:1-5
65. Lucet JC, Paoletti X, Lolom I, et al. Successful long-term program for controlling methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in intensive care units. Intensive Care Med 2005;31: 1051-1057
66. Clancy M, Graepler A, Wilson M, Douglas I, Johnson J, Price CS. Active screening in high-risk units is an effective and cost-avoidant method to reduce the rate of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection in the hospital. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2006;27:1009-1017
67. Kallen AJ, Brunkard J, Moore Z, et al. Staphylococcus aureus community-acquired pneumonia during the 2006 to 2007 influenza season. Ann Emerg Med 2008 Jun 3 [Epub ahead of print]
68. Bassetti S, Bischoff WE, Walter M, et al. Dispersal of Staphylococcus aureus into the air associated with a rhinovirus infection. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2005;26:196-203
69. de Lencastre H, de Jonge BL, Matthews PR, Tomasz A. Molecular aspects of methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. J Antimicrob Chemother 1994;33:7-24
70. Lowy FD. Staphylococcus aureus infections. N Engl J Med 1998;339:520-532
71. Hiramatsu K. Vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus:a new model of antibiotic resistance. Lancet Infect Dis 2001; 1:147-155
72. Cosgrove SE, Carroll KC, Perl TM. Staphylococcus aureus with reduced susceptibility to vancomycin. Clin Infect Dis 2004;39:539-545
73. Moise PA, Forrest A, Bhavnani SM, Birmingham MC, Schentag JJ. Area under the inhibitory curve and a pneumonia scoring system for predicting outcomes ofvancomycin therapy for respiratoryinfections byStaphylococcusaureus. Am JHealth Syst Pharm 2000;57(Suppl 2):S4-S9
74. Cui L, Ma X, Sato K, et al. Cell wall thickening is a common feature of vancomycin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. J Clin Microbiol 2003;41:5-14
75. Ma XX, Ito T, Tiensasitorn C, et al. Novel type of staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec identified in community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2002;46:1147-1152
76. Naimi TS, LeDell KH, Como-Sabetti K, et al. Comparison of community-and health care-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection. JAMA 2003;290: 2976-2984
77. Fedtke I, Gotz F, Peschel A. Bacterial evasion ofinnate host defenses-the Staphylococcus aureus lesson. Int J Med Micro-biol 2004;294(2-3):189-194
78. de Haas CJ, Veldkamp KE, Peschel A, et al. Chemotaxis inhibitory protein of Staphylococcus aureus, a bacterial antiinflammatory agent. J Exp Med 2004;199:687-695
79. Supersac G, Prevost G, Piemont Y. Sequencing of leucocidin R from Staphylococcus aureus P83 suggests that staphylococcal leucocidins and gamma-hemolysin are members of a single, two-component family of toxins. Infect Immun 1993;61:580-587
80. Prevost G, Cribier B, Couppie P, et al. Panton-Valentine leucocidin and gamma-hemolysin from Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 49775 are encoded by distinct genetic loci and have different biological activities. Infect Immun 1995;63:4121-4129
81. Prevost G, Couppie P, Prevost P, et al. Epidemiological data on Staphylococcus aureus strains producing synergohy-menotropic toxins. J Med Microbiol 1995;42:237-245
82. Sakoulas G, Eliopoulos GM, Moellering RC Jr, et al. Staphylococcus aureus accessory gene regulator (agr) group II: is there a relationship to the development of intermediate-level glycopeptide resistance? J Infect Dis 2003;187: 929-938
83. Moise-Broder PA, Sakoulas G, Eliopoulos GM, Schentag JJ, Forrest A, Moellering RC Jr. Accessory gene regulator group II polymorphism in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus is predictive of failure of vancomycin therapy. Clin Infect Dis 2004;38:1700-1705
84. Sakoulas G, Eliopoulos GM, Fowler VG Jr, et al. Reduced susceptibility of Staphylococcus aureus to vancomycin and platelet microbicidal protein correlates with defective autolysis and loss of accessory gene regulator (agr) function. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005;49:2687-2692
85. Fowler VG Jr, Sakoulas G, McIntyre LM, et al. Persistent bacteremia due to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection is associated with agr dysfunction and low-level in vitro resistance to thrombin-induced platelet microbicidal protein. J Infect Dis 2004;190:1140-1149
86. Wang R, Braughton KR, Kretschmer D, et al. Identification of novel cytolytic peptides as key virulence determinants for community-associated MRSA. Nat Med 2007;13:1510-1514
87. Rubinstein E, Cammarata S, Oliphant T, Wunderink R. Linezolid (PNU-100766) versus vancomycin in the treatment of hospitalized patients with nosocomial pneumonia: a randomized, double-blind, multicenter study. Clin Infect Dis 2001;32:402-412
88. Fagon JY, Chastre J, Wolff M, et al. Invasive and noninvasive strategies for management of suspected ventilator-associated pneumonia: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 2000;132:621-630
89. Moise PA, Forrest A, Birmingham MC, Schentag JJ. The efficacy and safety of linezolid as treatment for Staphylococcus aureus infections in compassionate use patients who are intolerant of, or who have failed to respond to, vancomycin. J Antimicrob Chemother 2002;50:1017-1026
90. Baughman RP, Kerr MA. Ventilator-associated pneumonia patients who do not reduce bacteria from the lungs have a worse prognosis. J Intensive Care Med 2003;18: 269-274
91. Wysocki M, Delatour F, Faurisson F, et al. Continuous versus intermittent infusion of vancomycin in severe staphylococcal infections: prospective multicenter randomized study. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2001;45:2460-2467
92. Jeffres MN, Isakow W, Doherty JA, et al. Predictors of mortality for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus health-care-associated pneumonia: specific evaluation of vancomycin pharmacokinetic indices. Chest 2006;130: 947-955
93. Jeffres MN, Isakow W, Doherty JA, Micek ST, Kollef MH. A retrospective analysis of possible renal toxicity associated with vancomycin in patients with health care-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus pneumonia. Clin Ther 2007;29:1107-1115
94. Moise PA, Smyth DS, El-Fawal N, et al. Microbiological effects of prior vancomycin use in patients with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia. J Antimicrob Chemother 2008;61:85-90
95. Wunderink RG, Rello J, Cammarata SK, Croos-Dabrera RV, Kollef MH. Linezolid vs vancomycin: analysis of two double-blind studies of patients with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus nosocomial pneumonia. Chest 2003;124: 1789-1797
96. Kollef MH, Rello J, Cammarata SK, Croos-Dabrera RV, Wunderink RG. Clinical cure and survival in Gram-positive ventilator-associated pneumonia: retrospective analysis of two double-blind studies comparing linezolid with vancomycin. Intensive Care Med 2004;30:388-394
97. Weigelt J, Itani K, Stevens D, Lau W, Dryden M, Knirsch C. Linezolid versus vancomycin in treatment of complicated skin and soft tissue infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005;49:2260-2266
98. Stevens DL, Herr D, Lampiris H, Hunt JL, Batts DH, Hafkin B. Linezolid versus vancomycin for the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections. Clin Infect Dis 2002;34:1481-1490
99. Cepeda JA, Whitehouse T, Cooper B, et al. Linezolid versus teicoplanin in the treatment of gram-positive infections in the critically ill: a randomized, double-blind, multicentre study. J Antimicrob Chemother 2004;53:345-355
100. Gee T, Ellis R, Marshall G, Andrews J, Ashby J, Wise R. Pharmacokinetics and tissue penetration of linezolid following multiple oral doses. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2001;45:1843-1846
101. Conte JE Jr, Golden JA, Kipps J, Zurlinden E. Intra-pulmonary pharmacokinetics of linezolid. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2002;46:1475-1480
102. Honeybourne D, Tobin C, Jevons G, Andrews J, Wise R. Intrapulmonary penetration of linezolid. J Antimicrob Chemother 2003;51:1431-1434
103. Boselli E, Breilh D, Rimmele T, et al. Pharmacokinetics and intrapulmonary concentrations of linezolid administered to critically ill patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia. Crit Care Med 2005;33:1529-1533
104. Bernardo K, Pakulat N, Fleer S, et al. Subinhibitory concentrations of linezolid reduce Staphylococcus aureus virulence factor expression. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2004;48:546-555
105. Ohlsen K, Ziebuhr W, Koller KP, Hell W, Wichelhaus TA, Hacker J. Effects of subinhibitory concentrations of antibiotics on alpha-toxin (hla) gene expression of methicillin-sensitive and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1998;42:2817-2823
106. Stevens DL, Ma Y, Salmi DB, McIndoo E, Wallace RJ, Bryant AE. Impact of antibiotics on expression of virulence-associated exotoxin genes in methicillin-sensitive and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J Infect Dis 2007; 195:202-211
107. Dumitrescu O, Boisset S, Badiou C, et al. Effect of antibiotics on Staphylococcus aureus producing Panton-Valentine leukocidin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2007; 51:1515-1519
108. Fagon J, Patrick H, Haas DW, et al. Treatment of gram-positive nosocomial pneumonia: prospective randomized comparison of quinupristin/dalfopristin versus vancomycin. Nosocomial Pneumonia Group. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000;161(3 Pt 1):753-762
109. Sander A, Beiderlinden M, Schmid EN, Peters J. Clinical experience with quinupristin-dalfopristin as rescue treatment of critically ill patients infected with methicillin-resistant staphylococci. Intensive Care Med 2002;28:1157-1160
110. Pertel PE, Bernardo P, Fogarty C, et al. Effects of prior effective therapy on the efficacy of daptomycin and ceftriax-one for the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis 2008;46:1142-1151
111. Fenton C, Keating GM, Curran MP. Daptomycin. Drugs 2004;64:445-455; discussion 457-458
112. Anstead GM, Owens AD. Recent advances in the treatment of infections due to resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2004;17:549-555
113. Silverman JA, Mortin LI, Vanpraagh AD, Li T, Alder J. Inhibition of daptomycin by pulmonary surfactant: in vitro modeling and clinical impact. J Infect Dis 2005;191:2149-2152
114. Zhanel GG, Homenuik K, Nichol K, et al. The glycylcy-clines: a comparative review with the tetracyclines. Drugs 2004;64:63-88
115. Zhang K, McClure JA, Elsayed S, Tan J, Conly JM. Coexistence of Panton-Valentine leukocidin-positive and-negative community-associated methicillin-resistant Staph-ylococcus aureus USA400 sibling strains in a large Canadian health-care region. J Infect Dis 2008;197:195-204
116. Shopsin B, Zhao X, Kreiswirth BN, Tillotson GS, Drlica K. Are the new quinolones appropriate treatment for community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus? Int J Antimicrob Agents 2004;24:32-34
117. Patel M, Waites KB, Moser SA, Cloud GA, Hoesley CJ. Prevalence of inducible clindamycin resistance among community-and hospital-associated Staphylococcus aureus isolates. J Clin Microbiol 2006;44:2481-2484
118. Van Bambeke F, Van Laethem Y, Courvalin P, Tulkens PM. Glycopeptide antibiotics: from conventional molecules to new derivatives. Drugs 2004;64:913-936
119. Iizawa Y, Nagai J, Ishikawa T, et al. In vitro antimicrobial activity of T-91825, a novel anti-MRSA cephalosporin, and in vivo anti-MRSA activity of its prodrug, TAK-599. J Infect Chemother 2004;10:146-156
120. Anderson SD, Gums JG. Ceftobiprole: an extended-spectrum anti-methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus cephalosporin. Ann Pharmacother 2008;42:806-816
121. Patti JM. A humanized monoclonal antibody targeting Staphylococcus aureus. Vaccine 2004;22(Suppl 1):S39-S43