'All masters discourage the marrying of their male servants, and admit not by any means the marriage of the female': Domestic Service and Celibacy in Western Europe from the Sixteenth to the Nineteenth Century

European History Quarterly

Volumn 38, Issue 3, 2008, Pages 417-449

  Sarti, Raffaella ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF URBINO   (Italy)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 57749135573     PISSN: 02656914     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0265691408091467     Document Type: Review

References (174)

1. David Hume, Essays, Moral, Political, and Literary (ed.), by E.F. Miller (Indianapolis 1987), II, XI, 13, first published: Part I: 1742;
2. Part II (Political Discourses): 1752; Combined: 1777, available online: http://www.econlib.org/library/LFBooks/Hume/hmMPL.html.
3. See in particular Raffaella Sarti, 'The True Servant. Self definition of Male Domestics in an Italian City (Bologna, 17th-19th Centuries)', The History of the Family, Vol. 10 (2005), 407-33;
4. Raffaella Sarti, 'Who are Servants? Defining Domestic Service in Western Europe (16th-21st Centuries)', in Suzy Pasleau and Isabelle Schopp, with Raffaella Sarti (eds), Proceedings of the Servant Project, 5 vols (Liège 2005) [in the following notes abbreviated to PSP], Vol. 2, 3-59;
5. Raffaella Sarti, 'Criados, Servi, Domestiques, Gesinde, Servants: For a Comparative History of Domestic Service in Europe (16th-19th centuries)', Obradoiro de Historia Moderna, Vol. 16 (2007), 9-39.
6. José de Caravantes, Práctica de misiones: Remedios de pecadores (León 1674), 433
7. quoted by Isidro Dubert, 'Le service domestique en Espagne et en Galice rurale, 1630-1850: entre idéal et réalité', in PSP, Vol. 1, 101-24.
8. Claude Fleury, Devoirs des maîtres et des domestiques (1688), in Œuvres de l'Abbé Fleury (Paris 1837), 574-612 (585).
9. Hume, Œuvres de l'Abbé Fleury, op. cit., II, XI, 13 and 23.
10. Moheau, Recherches et considérations sur la population de la France (1778), publié, avec introduction et table analytique, par René Gonnard (Paris 1912), 68.
11. Jean-Louis Flandrin, Familles. Parenté, maison, sexualité dans l'ancienne société (Paris 1984 [1976]), 166.
12. Heidi Müller, Dienstbare Geister: Leben und Arbeitswelt städtischer Dienstboten (Berlin 1985, 1981), 261.
13. e siècle'. Annales de démographie historique, 1981, 289-302 (297-8);
14. Christiane Klapisch-Zuber, 'Le serve a Firenze nei secoli XIV e XV, in Christiane Klapisch-Zuber, La famiglia e le donne nel Rinascimento a Firenze (Roma-Bari 1988), 253-83
15. (ed. or. 'Women Servants in Florence (14th-15th Centuries)', in Barbara Hanawalt (ed.). Women and Work in Preindustrial Europe (Bloomington 1986), 56-80;
16. Dennis Romano, Domestic Service in Renaissance Venice, 1400-1600 (Baltimore, MD and London 1996), 155, 164.
17. Angiolina Arru, Il servo. Storia di una carriera nel Settecento (Bologna 1995), 43-5, 92, 104. Guberti perceived the permission to forsake the livery as such an improvement to his social standing that he declared to some women who asked him whether he was a servant that he was not, because he did not wear the livery.
18. Mme Pariset, Nouveau manuel complet de la maîtresse de maison, ou Lettres sur l'économie domestique (Paris 1852), 84.
19. Paul Chabot, Histoire de Jean et Yvonne domestiques en 1900: racontée par Paul, leur fils, à Michel, son petit-fils (Paris 1980), 134.
20. Romano, Histoire de Jean et Yvonne domestiques en 1900: Racontée par Paul, leur fils, à Michel, son petit-fils, op. cit., 56.
21. Sarah C. Maza, Servants and Masters in Eighteenth Century France: The Uses of Loyalty (Princeton NJ 1983), 95.
22. See also Jean Pierre Gutton, Domestiques et serviteurs dans la France de l'ancien régime (Paris 1981), 138;
23. Cissie Fairchilds, Domestic Enemies. Servants and Their Masters in Old Regime France (Baltimore MD and London 1984), 81.
24. Carolyn Steedman, 'Lord Mansfield's Women', Past & Present, no. 176 (2002), 105-43.
25. Robert J. Steinfeld, The Invention of Free Labor: The Employment Relation in English and American Law and Culture, 1350-1870 (Chapel Hill NC and London 1991), 25-6, 120;
26. Josef Ehmer, Heiratsverhalten, Sozialstruktur, Ökonomischer Wandel (Göttingen 1991), 173-78;
27. Ilana Krausman Ben-Amos, Adolescence and Youth in Early Modern England (New Haven CT 1994), 31, 119-24.
28. Steinfeld, Adolescence and Youth in Early Modern England, op. cit., 22-4;
29. Amy M. Froide, 'Marital Status as a Category of Difference: Singlewomen and Widows in Early Modem England', in Judith M. Bennett and Amy M. Froide (eds), Single Women in the European Past 1250-1800 (Philadelphia PA 1998), 236-69;
30. Sheila McIsaac-Cooper, 'Servants and the Law in Early-Modern England', in PSP, Vol. 3, 27-44.
31. See also William Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England (1765-1769), Book 1, Chapter 14, available online: http://www.lonang.com/ exlibris/blackstone/bla-114.htm
32. Enrique Villalba Pérez, 'Posibilidades femeninas de vida individual en la España de los Austrias', in María Victoria Ĺopez Cordón and Montserrat Carbonell (eds), Historia de la mujere historia del matrimonio (Murcia 1997), 111-20 (117).
33. Sølvi Sogner, 'The Legal Status of Servants in Norway from the Seventeenth to the Twentieth Century', in PSP, Vol. 3, 103-14
34. and in Antoinette Fauve-Chamoux (ed.), Domestic Service and the Formation of European Identity: Understanding the Globalization of Domestic Work, 16th-21st Centuries (Bern and Berlin 2004) [in the following notes AFC], 175-87 (180, 182).
35. Loftur Guttormsson, 'Il servizio come istituzione sociale in Islanda e nei paesi nordici', Quaderni storici, Vol. 23 (1988), 355-79 (361, 377).
36. Christer Lundh, 'Life Cycle Servants in Nineteenth Century Sweden: Norms and Practice', in PSP, Vol. 3, 69-82
37. and in AFC, 71-85 (72, in a slightly different version).
38. The text of the law will shortly be available on http://www.rzuser.uni- heidelberg.de/cd2/drw/f/BairLO15.htm (at present there are only the indices).
39. Landrecht, Policey: Gerichts-, Malefitz- vnd andere Ordnungen. Der Fürstenthumben Obern vnd Nidern Bayrn (München 1616), 657-9, 662-4 (Book IV, Title XI, articles 1, 7, 9 and 10; Title XII);
40. Renate Dürr, '"Der Dienstbhote ist kein Tagelöhner... ": Zum Gesinderecht (16. bis 19. Jahrhundert)', in Ute Gerhard (ed.), Frauen in der Geschichte des Rechts (München 1997), 115-39;
41. Ulrike Strasser, State of Virginity. Gender, Religion, and Politics in an Early Modern Catholic State (Ann Arbor MI 2004), 18, 51-5.
42. Ehmer, Heiratsverhalten, 48.
43. Raffaella Sarti, Nubili e celibi tra scelta e costrizione: I percorsi di Clio (Europa occidentale, secoli XVI-XXI), in Margareth Lanzinger and Raffaella Sarti (eds), Nubili e celibi tra scelta e costrizione (secoli XVI-XX) (Udine 2006), 145-319 (182-96);
44. Raffaella Sarti, 'Freedom and Citizenship?: The Legal Status of Servants and Domestic Workers in a Comparative Perspective (16th-21st Centuries)', in PSP, Vol. 3, 127-64 (available online on the website: http://www.uniurb.it/ sarti/)
45. and in Victor Crescenzi (ed.), Libertà e lavoro, special issue of Diritto romano attuale, Vol. 15 (2006), 163-202.
46. Anne-Lise Head-König, 'Forced Marriages and Forbidden Marriages in Switzerland: State Control of the Formation of Marriages in Catholic and Protestant Cantons in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries', Continuity and Change, 8 (1993), 441-65;
47. e siècle', in Christophe Duhamelle and Jürgen Schlumbohm (eds), Eheschließungen im Europa des 18. und 19. Jahrhunderts: Muster und Strategien (Göttingen 2003), 189-214.
48. Edith Saurer, 'Geschlechterbeziehungen, Ehe und Illegitimität in der Habsburgermonarchie: Venetien, Niederösterreich und Böhmen im frühen 19. Jahrhundert', in Josef Ehmer, Tamara K. Hareven and Richard Wall (eds). Historische Familienforschung: Ergebnisse und Kontroversen (Frankfurt and New York 1997), 123-51.
49. In these areas limitations on the freedom to marry were still in force as late as 1923, see Margareth Lanzinger, 'Una società di nubili e celibi?: Indagine su una vallata tirolese nell'Ottocento', in Margareth Lanzinger and Raffaella Sarti (eds), op. cit., 113-34 (116);
50. Margareth Lanzinger, Das gesicherte Erbe. Heirat in lokalen und familialen Kontexten, Innichen 1700-1900 (Wien, Köln and Weimar 2003), 27.
51. Such limitations formed part of a wide array of bans on marriage at various levels aimed at excluding from the possibility of marriage those who were too young and/or without the necessary means to keep a family. The bans were enforced, depending on the area, by landlords, communal and state authorities, and even guilds. In the German context, in actual fact, many guilds laid down that apprentices and Gesellen (jouneymen) could not marry. It is important to stress that the border between areas with or without legal barriers to marriage did not coincide with the division between (mostly) Protestant and (mostly) Catholic areas, Sarti, Nubili e celibi, 195. On these limitations see Klaus-Jürgen Matz, Pauperismus und Bevölkerung: Die gesetzlichen Ehebeschränkungen in den süddeutschen Staaten während des 19. Jahrhunderts (Stuttgart 1980);
52. Merry Wiesner, 'Corpi separati. Le associazioni dei lavoranti nella Germania moderna', Memoria, Vol. 27 (1989), 44-67;
53. Josef Ehmer, '"Servi di donne": Matrimonio e costituzione di una propria famiglia da parte dei garzoni come campo di conflitto nel mondo artigiano mitteleuropeo', Quaderni storici, Vol. 27 (1992), 475-507;
54. Elisabeth Mantl, Heirat als Privileg: Obrigkeitliche Heiratsbeschrä nkungen in Tirol und Voralberg 1820 bis 1920 (Wien and München 1997);
55. Margareth Lanzinger, 'The House as Demographic Factor? Elements of Marriage Pattern under the Auspices of Hindrance Policies', Historical Social Research, Vol. 28 (2003), 58-75.
56. Josef Ehmer, Heiratsverhalten; Raffaella Sarti, Europe at Home. Family and Material Culture 1500-1800 (New Haven CT and London 2002;
57. or. ed. Vita di casa. Abitare, mangiare, vestire nell'Europa moderna, Roma-Bari 1999) 24;
58. Josef Ehmer, Nubili e celibi, 182-96.
59. See the texts mentioned in notes 29-32.
60. John Hajnal, 'Two Kinds of Pre-industrial Household Formation Systems', in Richard Wall, in collaboration with Jean Robin and Peter Laslett (eds.), Family Forms in Historic Europe (Cambridge 1983), 65-104 (96-7).
61. See in particular John Hajnal, 'European Marriage Patterns in Perspective', in D.V. Glass and D.E.C. Eversley (eds), Population in History (London 1965), 101-35;
62. Hajnal, 'Two Kinds of Pre-industrial Household Formation Systems'; Peter Laslett, 'Size and Structure of the Household in England over Three Centuries', Population Studies, Vol. 23 (1969), 199-223;
63. Peter Laslett, 'Characteristics of the Western Family Considered Over Time', Journal of Family History, Vol. 2 (1977), 89-115;
64. other version in Peter Laslett, Family Life and Illicit Love in Earlier Generations (Cambridge 1977), 12-49;
65. Peter Laslett, 'Family and Household as Work and Kin Group: Areas of Traditional Europe Compared', in Robin Wall and Peter Laslett (eds), Family Forms in Historic Europe, 513-63.
66. E.A. Wrigley and R.S. Schofield (with contributions by R. Lee and J. Oeppen), The Population History of England 1541-1871 (London 1981), passim.
67. See in particular Sarti, 'The True Servant';
68. Sarti, 'Who are Servants?';
69. Sarti, 'Criados, servi, domestiques, Gesinde'.
70. Michael Mitterauer, 'Servants and Youth', Continuity and Change, Vol. 5 (1990), 11-38.
71. Marie-Christine (Lotta) Vikström M.-C. (L.), 'Female Domestic Servants in Sundsvall. A Swedish Sawmill, during Industrilization', in AFC, 87-112
72. also published in a slightly different version with the title' Quantitative and Qualitative Aspects on Female Domestic Servants in Sundsvall: a Swedish Sawmill Town, during Industrialization, in PSP, Vol. 1, 19-41.
73. Sarti, 'Who are Servants?', 8-10.
74. Edward Higgs, 'Women's Occupations and Work in the Nineteenth Century Census', History Workshop, Vol. 23 (1987), 59-81 (71).
75. Marc Ebery and Brian Preston, Domestic Service in Late Victorian and Edwardian England, 1871-1914 (Reading 1976), 13;
76. Matthew Woollard, 'The Classification of Domestic Servants in England and Wales, 1851-1951', in PSP, Vol. 2, 189-216.
77. Raffaella Sarti, 'Servire al femminile, servire al maschile nella Bologna sette-ottocentesca', in Paola Nava (ed.), Operaie, serve, maestre, impiegate (Torino 1992), 237-64 (242-4).
78. See for instance Carolyn Steedman, 'The Servant's Labour: The Business of Life, 1760-1820', Social History, Vol. 29 (2004), 1-29.
79. Marcel Cusenier, Les domestiques en France (Paris 1912), 60. See also, below, the section' Celibacy and age at marriage among female live-outs'.
80. Klapisch-Zuber, 'Célibat et service féminins', 297-301;
81. Klapisch-Zuber, 'Le serve a Firenze', 260-71. The girls who engaged themselves to serve in exchange for a dowry until the master decided to marry them off often left without any wages before marrying.
82. Ann Kussmaul, Servants in Husbandry in Early Modern England (Cambridge 1981), 97, 79.
83. In the 1960s an important discussion between Laslett and Macpherson took place about the meaning of the word 'servant' in seventeenth-century England, particularly in the debates about franchise during the English Revolution, see C. Brough Macpherson, The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism (Oxford 1964, 1962);
84. C. Brough Macpherson, Democratic Theory: Essays in Retrieval (Oxford and New York 1973);
85. Peter Laslett, 'Market Society and Political Theory', Historical Journal, Vol. 7 (1964), 150-4.
86. Tim Meldrum, Domestic Service and Gender 1660-1750: Life and Work in the London Household (Harlow 2000), 17-8.
87. For instance Pierrette Hondagneu-Sotelo and Ernestine Avila, "I'm here, but I'm there": The Meaning of Latina Transnational Motherhood', Gender and Society, Vol. 11 (1997), 548-71;
88. Rhacel Parreñas, Servants of Globalization: Women, Migration and Domestic Work (Stanford 2001).
89. Andrea Doveri, '"Padre che ha figliuoli grandi fuor li mandi": Una prima valutazione sulla diffusione e sul ruolo dei "garzoni" nelle campagne pisane dei secoli XVII e XVIII', in Società Italiana di Demografia Storica, La popolazione delle campagne italiane in età moderna (Bologna 1993), 427-49.
90. Giovanna Da Molin, 'Family Forms and Domestic Service in Southern Italy from the Seventeenth to Nineteenth century', Journal of Family History, Vol. 15 (1990), 503-27.
91. See for instance Sheila McIsaac-Cooper, 'The Transition from Traditional Life-Cycle Service', in PSP, Vol. 2, 61-71;
92. Christer Lundh, 'The Social Mobility of Servants in Rural Sweden, 1740-1837', Continuity and Change, Vol. 14 (1999), 57-89;
93. Christer Lundh, 'Criados agrícolas en la Suecia del XIX: El caso de Escania'
94. and Richard Paping, 'Oferta y demanda de criados rurales en Holanda, 1760-1920', both in Carmen Sarasuá (ed.), Criados y mozos en la organizatión Historica del trabajo agrario, special issue of Historia Agraria, Vol. 25 (2005), respectively 93-114 and 115-42;
95. e siècles, Praha, Ceská Demografická Sociologický Ústav av CR, 1997 (Acta Demographica, XIII, special issue), 23-39; Guttormsson, op. cit.
96. Actually, while several scholars have dealt with the so-called 'institution of service' as if it were also urban, in Hajnal's view it was typically rural (Hajnal, 'Two Kinds of Pre-industrial Household Formation Systems', 97).
97. Renate Dürr, Mägde in der Stadt: Das Beispiel Schwäbisch Hall in der Frühen Neuzeit (Frankfurt and New York 1995), 176-80.
98. Dürr, Mägde in der Stadt, 43-5.
99. e siècle (Paris 1981), 90-1.
100. e siècle, op. cit., 96, 82.
101. e siècle, op. cit., 129 ('most male servants and nearly all females were unmarried').
102. This pattern was found by Klapisch-Zuber ('Le serve', 259, 265) in late medieval Florence, too: between 1450-99, she noted both an increase of migrant maids and growing celibacy rates among female servants.
103. Angiolina Arru, 'Il matrimonio tardivo dei servie delle serve', Quaderni storici, Vol. 23 (1988), 469-96;
104. Angiolina Arru, 'A che prezzo la carriera! Nubilato e servizio domestico a Roma nell'Ottocento', in Società Italiana di Demografla Storica, Popolazione, società, ambiente: Temi di demografia storica italiana (secc. XVII-XIX) (Bologna 1990), 103-23; Arru, Il servo, in part. Figures 1-4.
105. Maria Casalini, Servitù, nobili e borghesi nella Firenze dell'Ottocento (Firenze 1997), 253-7;
106. e siècle', in PSP, Vol. IV, 101-24.
107. Giambattista Salinari, 'Anatomia di un gruppo senza storia: i domestici a Firenze (1800-1875)', Polis, Vol. 18 (2004), 47-75;
108. Giambattista Salinari, 'Problemi di analisi storica: gruppi sociali e loro processi evolutivi a Firenze nel XIX secolo', PhD thesis (Università degli studi di Firenze 2004), 380-425;
109. e siècle', in PSP, Vol. 2, 87-101.
110. See also, in France, Cusenier, PSP, op. cit., 286. Single live-in maids were obviously likely to have children but not to keep them with them.
111. Arru, 'A che prezzo la carriera!', 117.
112. Antoinette Fauve-Chamoux, 'Le surplus urbain des femmes en France préindustrielle et le rôle de la domesticité', Population, Vol. 53 (1998), 359-77.
113. Antoinette Fauve-Chamoux, Introduction, in AFC, 1-16 (5).
114. Raffaella Sarti, 'Per una storia del personale domestico in Italia: Il caso di Bologna (secc. XVIII-XIX)', PhD thesis (University of Turin 1994), 250;
115. Raffaella Sarti, 'Servire al femminile', 253;
116. Raffaella Sarti, 'Domestic Service as a "Bridging Occupation": Past and Present', in PSP, Vol. IV, 163-85 (173; available online on the website http://www.uniurb.it/sarti/).
117. Theresa McBride, The Domestic Revolution: The Modernization of Household Service in England and France, 1820-1920 (London 1976), 87-8.
118. Karin Orth, 'Nur weiblichen Besuch': Dienstbotinnen in Berlin 1890-1914 (Frankfurt and New York 1993), 14.
119. Karin Walser, Dienstmädchen. Frauenarbeit und Weiblichkeitsbilder um 1900 (Frankfurt 1986, 1985), 110.
120. Müller, Dienstmädchen. Frauenarbeit und Weiblichkeitsbilder um 1900, op. cit., 261;
121. Karin Walser, 'Prostitutionsverdacht und Geschlechterforschung: Das Beispiel der Dienstmädchen um 1900', Geschichte und Gesellschaft, Vol. 11 (1985), 99-111 (102).
122. Müller, Geschichte und Gesellschaft, op. cit., 261.
123. Cusenier, Geschichte und Gesellschaft, op. cit., 269.
124. See also Anne Martin-Fugier, La place des bonnes: La domesticité féminine en 1900 (Paris 1979), 312.
125. Riccardo Bachi, La serva nella evoluzione sociale (Torino 1900), 44-5.
126. For instance Steedman, 'The Servant's Labour'.
127. My calculations on data provided by Casalini, Servitù, nobili e borghesi, 169 and 183;
128. see also Casalini, 'Ununivers en mutation'.
129. Some data on the servants' ages in McBride, Ununivers en mutation, op. cit., 114.
130. Cusenier, Ununivers en mutation, op. cit., 269.
131. Louise Tilly and Joan Scott, Women, Work and Family (New York 1978, Ital. transl. Donne, lavoro e famiglia nell'evoluzione della società contemporanea, Bari 1981), 190-1.
132. Eliane Gubin, 'La domesticité, une réalité mal adaptée au contexte de l'entre-deux-guerres en Belgique?', Sextant, Vols. 15-16 (2001), 33-59 (40-5).
133. Pothiti Hantzaroula, 'Sexual Violence in Domestic Service in Greece, 1920-1950', paper presented at the Fourth seminar of the 'Servant Project', Essex, 8-10 May 2003, abstract in PSP, Vol. 4, 329-30.
134. McBride, Servant Project, op. cit., 86.
135. Margherita Pelaja, 'Mestieri femminili e luoghi comuni: Le domestiche a Roma a metà Ottocento', Quaderni storici, Vol. 23 (1988), 497-518.
136. Cusenier, The True Servant, op. cit., 267.
137. See also McBride, The True Servant, op. cit., 86.
138. On the feminization of domestic service see Raffaella Sarti, 'Notes on the feminization of domestic service: Bologna as a case study (18th-19th centuries)', in Fauve-Chamoux and Fialovà (eds), op. cit., 125-63;
139. Raffaella Sarti, 'Domestic Service: Past and Present in Southern and Northern Europe', Gender and History, Vol. 17 (2006), 222-45;
140. Maria Casalini, Le service: un métier «féminin» ? Une recherche sur la Toscane au XIXe siècle, paper presented at the XIII Economic History Congress, Buenos Aires, 22-26 July 2002, available online: eh.net/XIIICongress/cd/papers/29Casalini274.pdf
141. For instance Romano, XIII Economic History Congress, op. cit., 165;
142. Fairchilds, XIII Economic History Congress, op. cit., 94;
143. Meldrum, XIII Economic History Congress, op. cit., 17-8, 31; Pelaja, op. cit.;
144. Sarti, 'Servire al femminile, servire al maschile', 242-4;
145. e siècle (Paris 1978), 286.
146. Casalini, 'Un univers en mutation', 111.
147. e siècles (Paris 1993, 1975), 77-8.
148. For instance Aldigherio Fontana, La Donzella che serve instruita (Milano and Bologna 1710; this is not the 1st edn), 12-3.
149. See Raffaella Sarti, 'Obbedienti e fedeli. Note sull'istruzione morale e religiosa di servi e serve tra Cinque e Settecento', Annali dell'Istituto storico italogermanico in Trento, Vol. 17 (1991), 91-120.
150. See also Marina Caffiero, 'Servi, serve e padroni a Roma nel settecento', Studi Storici, Vol. 38 (1997), 836-44, who stresses some commonalities between servants and saints.
151. Institutione della Casa di S. Gioseffo Con le Regole, e forma di vivere, da farsi osservare per le Putte, che si ammaestrano in quella (Bologna 1641), 6.
152. This possibility was explicitly contemplated by the Regula of the Company of St. Ursula, founded in Brescia, Italy, in 1535 by Angela Merici: 'If she [the Ursuline] wants to enter service as a massara or donzella [two different types of domestic servants] she has to be placed where she may fare well and live honestly', Regula, XI, see Querciolo Mazzonis, 'Donne spirituali, individui moderni. Il caso delle orsoline di Angela Merici (1535-1540)', in Lanzinger and Sarti (eds), op. cit., 49-69 (66).
153. Mazzonis also mentions several cases of Ursulines actually employed in service. See also Querciolo Mazzonis, Spirituality, Gender and the Self in Renaissance Italy. Angela Merici and the Company of St. Ursula (1474-1540) (Washington 2007).
154. Raffaella Sarti, 'Zita, serva e santa: Un modello da imitare?', in Giulia Barone, Marina Caffiero and Francesco Scorza Barcellona (eds), Modelli di santità e modelli di comportamento: Contrasti, intersezioni, complementarità (Torino 1994), 307-59;
155. Raffaella Sarti, 'Telling Zita's Tale: Holy Servant's Stories and Servant's History', in Regina Schulte and Pothiti Hantzaroula (eds), Narratives of the Servant (San Domenico, Firenze 2001), 1-30;
156. Raffaella Sarti, 'Legenden von der heiligen Zita und Dienstbotengeschichte', L'Homme. Zeitschrift für feministische Geschichtswissenschaft, Vol. 18 (2007), 11-32.
157. Diego Leoni, 'La comunità delle donne di servizio', Materiali di lavoro, Vol. 4 (1983), 125-34 (131).
158. Besides the texts mentioned in the notes 105 and 106, see Cécile Vanderpelen, '"C'était mieux avant": Service, servantes et domestiques chez les écrivains catholiques belges de langue française, 1918-1939', Sextant, Vols. 15-16 (2001), 61-82;
159. Raffaella Sarti, 'La domesticité en Italie durant la période du fascisme (1922-943)', ibid., 165-202 (193-99);
160. Raffaella Sarti, '"Noi abbiamo visto tante città, abbiamo un'altra cultura": Servizio domestico, migrazioni e identità di genere in Italia: uno sguardo di lungo periodo', Polis, Vol. 18 (2004), 17-46 (38);
161. Raffaella Sarti, 'Conclusion: Domestic Service and European Identity', in PSP, vol. 5, 195-284 (available online on the website http://www.uniurb.it/ sarti/);
162. Raffaella Sarti, 'Dangerous Liaisons: Servants as "Children" Taught by their Masters and as "Teachers" of their Masters' Children (Italy and France, 16th-20th centuries)', Paedagogica Historica, Vol. 43 (2007), 565-87.
163. Margaret Magat, 'Teachers and "New Evangelizers" for their Faith: Filipina Domestic Workers at Work in Italy', Paedagogica Historica, Vol. 43 (2007), 565-87;
164. Margaret Magat, 'Transnational Lives, Cosmopolitan Women: Filipina Domestic Workers and Expressive Culture in Rome, Italy', PhD thesis (University of Pennsylvania, 2003), 272-89;
165. Margaret Magat, 'Women Breadwinners in the Margins: Filipina Domestic Workers in Rome, Italy', in AFC, 351-68
166. D.A. Kent, 'Ubiquitous but Invisible: Female Domestic Servants in Mid-eighteenth Century London', History Workshop, Vol. 28 (1989), 111-28.
167. Marie-Pierre Arrizabalaga, 'Urban Migrants and Domesticity in the 19th Century: the Basque Case', in PSP, Vol. 4, 303-27.
168. See for instance Fairchilds, op. cit., 185-8;
169. Claude Petitfrère, 1784, le scandale du «Mariage de Figaro»: prélude à la Révolution française? (Bruxelles 1988), 130-6;
170. Meldrum, le scandale du «Mariage de Figaro»: prélude à la Révolution française?, op. cit., 117-8;
171. e siècle (Bruxelles 2000), 279.
172. Helma Lutz and Susanne Schwaigin, 'Irregular Migration and the Globalisation of Domestic Work', in AFC, 297-315 (307)
173. and in PSP, Vol. 4, 225-41.
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