Domestic service: Past and present in Southern and Northern Europe

Gender and History

Volumn 18, Issue 2, 2006, Pages 222-245

  Sarti, Raffaella ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF URBINO   (Italy)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AGING POPULATION; MODERNIZATION; PUBLIC SERVICE; TWENTIETH CENTURY; UNEMPLOYMENT; WELFARE PROVISION; WOMENS EMPLOYMENT;

CENTRAL EUROPE; EURASIA; EUROPE; GERMANY; ITALY; NORTHERN EUROPE; SCANDINAVIA; SOUTHERN EUROPE; SPAIN; SWEDEN;

EID: 33845898529     PISSN: 09535233     EISSN: 14680424     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0424.2006.00427.x     Document Type: Article

References (125)

1. I have dealt with some of the issues analysed in this paper in the following essays: Raffaella Sarti, 'La Domesticité en Italie durant la période du Fascisme (1922-1943)', Sextant 15-16 (2001), pp. 165-202; Raffaella Sarti, 'Da serva a operaia: Trasformazioni di lungo periodo del servizio domestico in Europa', Polis. Ricerche e studi su società e politica in Italia 19 (2005), pp. 91-122 (a longer version Domestic Service in Southern and Northern Europe 239 with detailed information on censuses is available online at ); Raffaella Sarti, 'Conclusion. Domestic Service and European Identity', in Suzy Pasleau, Raffaella Sarti and Isabelle Schopp, Final Report: The Socio-Economic Role of Domestic Service as a Factor of European Identity (forthcoming), and, in a slightly different version, in Suzy Pasleau and Isabelle Schopp (eds), with Raffaella Sarti, Proceedings of the Servant Project, vol. 5 (Liège: Éditions de l'Université de Liège, forthcoming; hereafter SPP), preprint: Raffaella Sarti, S.I.P, 2005, available at .
2. Raffaella Sarti, 'Work and Toil: Breadwinner Ideology and Women's Work in 19th and 20th Century Italy', paper presented at the international conference Women, Work and the Breadwinner Ideology, Salzburg, Austria, 10-11 December 1999, available at ; Sarti, 'La Domesticité'; Sarti, 'Da serva'; Sarti, 'Conclusion. Domestic Service and European Identity'.
3. Lucien Deslinières, L'Application du système collectiviste (Paris: Librairie de la Revue Socialiste, 1899), pp. 369-71; Riccardo Bachi, La serva nella evoluzione sociale (Turin: G. Sacerdote, 1900), pp. 40, 44-5; on Ada Negri see Flores Reggiani, 'Un problema tecnico e un problema morale: La crisi delle domestiche a Milano (1890-1914)', in Ada Gigli Marchetti and Nanda Torcellan (eds), Donna lombarda 1860-1945 (Milan: Angeli, 1992), pp. 149-79, here p. 152; on Gringoire, see Valérie Piette, Domestiques et servantes: Des vies sous condition. Essai sur le travail domestique en Belgique au 19e siècle (Brussels: Académie Royale de Belgique, 2000), p. 391.
4. More details on this idea in Sarti, 'Da serva', pp. 92-9; Sarti, 'Domestic Service and European Identity'.
5. According to Eliane Gubin, 'La Domesticité, une réalité mal adaptée au contexte de l'entre-deux-guerres en Belgique?', Sextant 15-16 (2001), pp. 33-59, here pp. 41-2, in Belgium 17 per cent of economically active women in 1910 were domestic workers, 15 per cent in 1920 and 18 per cent in 1930, while among men domestic workers represented 0.7 per cent both in 1910 and 1920, and 0.6 per cent in 1930. For 1910 Gubin does not use the same servant category as Piette, Domestiques et servantes, whose data is used in Table 1 (Appendix) of Sarti, 'Conclusion. Domestic Service and European Identity'.
6. On the USA see George Stigler, Domestic Servants in the United States, 1900-1940 (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1946), pp. 3-5; David Chaplin, 'Domestic Service and Industrialization', Comparative Studies in Sociology 1 (1978), pp. 97-127.
7. Rebecca Spagnolo, 'When Private Home Meets PublicWorkplace: Service, Space and the Urban Domestic in 1920s Russia', in Christina Kiaer and Eric Naiman (eds), Everyday Life in Early Soviet Russia: Taking the Revolution Inside (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005), ch. 9.
8. Pamela Horn, The Rise and Fall of the Victorian Servant (Dublin: Gill & Macmillan and London: St Martin's Press, 1975), p. 170. See also Theresa McBride, The Domestic Revolution: The Modernisation of Household Service in England and France 1820-1920 (London: Croom Helm, 1976), p. 112; Chaplin, 'Domestic Service', p. 108; Jacqueline Martin-Huan, La Longue marche des domestiques en France du XIXe siècleà nos jours (Nantes: Opéra, 1997), p. 92; Gubin, 'La Domesticité', p. 58.
9. Female servants were never included by Fascist laws that tried - not very successfully, in fact - to stop migration to the cities in order to prevent the unemployed from concentrating in urban areas, see Anna Treves, Le migrazioni interne nell'Italia fascista (Turin: Einaudi, 1976), pp. 74-8, 154.
10. See Sarti, 'La Domesticité', with further references on the Fascist period.
11. See, in English, Chiara Saraceno, 'Redefining Maternity and Paternity: Gender, Pronatalism and Social Policies in Fascist Italy', in Gisela Bock and Pat Thane (eds), Maternity and Gender Policies (London: Routledge, 1991), pp. 196-212; Victoria De Grazia, How Fascism Ruled Women: Italy 1922-1945 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); Perry Willson, Peasant Women and Politics in Fascist Italy: The Massaie Rurali (London: Routledge, 2002).
12. Annamaria Galoppini, Il lungo viaggio verso la parità: I diritti civili e politici delle donne dall'unità ad oggi (Bologna: Zanichelli, 1980), pp. 93-136; De Grazia, How Fascism Ruled Women, pp. 166-200.
13. See note 2 and Alessandra Pescarolo, 'Il lavoro e le risorse delle donne in età contemporanea', in Angela Groppi (ed.), Il lavoro delle donne (Rome-Bari: Laterza, 1996), pp. 299-344; Silvana Patriarca, 'Gender Trouble: Women and the Making of Italy's "active population", 1861-1936', Journal of Modern Italian Studies 3 (1998), pp. 144-63; BarbaraCurli and Alessandra Pescarolo, 'Genere, lavori, etichette statistiche: I censimenti in una prospettiva storica', in Franca Bimbi (ed.), Differenze e disuguaglianze: Prospettive per gli studi di genere in Italia (Bologna: Il Mulino, 2003), pp. 65-100.
14. Ornello Vitali, Aspetti dello sviluppo economico italiano alla luce della ricostruzione della popolazione attiva (Rome: Failli, 1970), pp. 132, 144.
15. Sarti, 'Work and Toil'; Alessandra Pescarolo, "Il modello del breadwinner e il "lungo Ottocento" del lavoro precario', paper presented at the conference Leggere le differenze. Percorsi di ricerca per la costruzione di indicatori di genere, Prato, Italy, 23-24 November 2001.
16. Christine Bard, 'Le Triomphe du familisme', in Christine Bard (ed.), Un sivcle d'antiféminisme (Paris: Fayard, 1999), pp. 169-92. According to the original census data, the female activity rate was 42.3 per cent in 1921 and 34.4 per cent in 1936. According to the data corrected by Olivier Marchand and Claude Thélot, Deux siècles de travail en France: Population active et structure sociale, durée et productivité du travail (Paris: Insee, 1991), p. 179, it reduced from 43.4 per cent to 38.4 per cent.
17. Percentage of servants among active women and men in France according to original and corrected census data:
18. Statistisches Reichsamt, Statistisches Jahrbuch für das Deutsche Reich: Ünfundfünfzigster Jahrgang 1936 (Berlin: Verlag für Sozialpolitik, Wirtschaft und Statistik, 1936), pp. 17-19. See also Angelika Willms, 'Grundzüge der Entwicklung der Frauenarbeit von 1880 bis 1980', in Walter Müller, Johann Handl and Angelika Willms, Strukturwandel der Frauenarbeit 1880-1980 (Frankfurt: Campus Verlag, 1983), pp. 25-54, here p. 35.
19. Gretel Keller, Hausgehilfin und Hausflucht, ein soziales Problem von gestern und heute (Dortmund: Soziale Welt Verlag, 1950), p. 76.
20. Women included in the domestic work sector (Häusliche Dienste) represented 11.8 per cent of economically active women in 1925, 10.9 per cent in 1933. Without the unemployed, they were respectively 13.2 per cent and 10.5 per cent. It is not possible to do this calculation on the more specific category of the Hausangestellte.
21. Keller, Hausgehilfin, pp. 80-83.
22. Keller, Hausgehilfin, pp. 86-8; Willms, 'Grundzüge', p. 35. See also Simone Odierna, Die heimliche Rückkehr der Dienstmädchen: Bezahlte Arbeit im privaten Haushalt (Opladen: Leske-Budrich, 2000), p. 68.
23. Keller, Hausgehilfin, pp. 89-91; Barbara Henkes, Heimat in Holland: Deutsche Dienstmädchen 1920-1950 (Tübingen: Straelener Manuskipte Verlag, 1998); original Dutch edition, Heimat in Holland: Duitse dienstmeisjes 1920-1950 (Amsterdam: Babylon De Geus, 1995), see esp. pp. 173-94, German edition; UlrikeWinkler, 'Hauswirtschaftliche Ostarbeiterinnen: Zwangsarbeit in deutschen Haushalten', in Ulrike Winkler (ed.), Stiften gehen: NS-Zwangsarbeit und Entschädigungsdebatte (Cologne: PapyRossa, 2000), pp. 146-68 (in March 1944 about 100,000 foreign domestic servants worked in German households, p. 162).
24. Gisela Bock, Women in European History (Malden: Blackwell, 2001), p. 216.
25. Article 12 of the Royal Law-Decree (Regio Decreto Legge) 17 November 1938, no. 1728 (XVII), published in the Gazzetta Ufficiale, no. 264, 19 November 1938, converted into law of 5 January 1939 no. 38.
26. Italian Civil Code, Libro V (Del lavoro), tit. IV (Del lavoro subordinato in particolari rapporti), capo II (Del lavoro domestico), articles 2240-46.
27. On Italy see note 11; on Germany see Gisela Bock, 'Il nazionalsocialismo: Politiche di genere e vita delle donne', in Georges Duby and Claude Perrot (eds), Storia delle donne, vol. 5: Il Novecento, Françoise Thébaud (ed.) (Rome-Bari: Laterza, 1992), pp. 178-212; Bock, Women in European History, pp. 208-9. The increasing need for female workers in subordinate jobs because of post-depression recovery and expansion of war industry also prevented the Nazis from achieving the ideal of Kinder, Küche, Kirche, despite the dismissal of women from several professions, see Rita R. Thalmann, 'Zwischen Mutterkreuz und Rüstungsbetrieb', in Karl Dietrich Bracher, Manfred Funke and Hans-Adolf Jacobsen (eds), Deutschland 1933-1945: Neue Studien ur nationalsozialistischen Herrschaft (2nd edn, Düsseldorf: Droste, 1993), pp. 198-217.
28. Rex Pope, 'Unemployed Women in Inter-War Britain: The Case of the Lancashire Weaving District', Women's History Review 9 (2000), pp. 743-59; Pamela Horn, 'Ministry of Labour Female Training Programmes between the Wars: 1919-39', History of Education 31 (2002), pp. 71-82.
29. Tony Kushner, 'Asylum or Servitude? Refugee Domestics in Britain, 1933-1945', Bulletin of the Society for the Study of Labour History 53 (1988), pp. 19-27; Tony Kushner, 'Politics and Race, Gender and Class: Refugees, Fascists and Domestic Service in Britain, 1933-1940', Immigrants and Minorities 8 (1989), pp. 49-58.
30. Pothiti Hantzaroula, 'The Making of Subordination: Domestic Servants in Greece, 1920-1945' (PhD thesis, European University Institute, Florence, 2002), pp. 211-37; Pothiti Hantzaroula, 'The Status of Servant's Labour in State Policy (Greece, 1870-1960)', in SPP vol. 2.
31. Sarti, 'Da serva', p. 106.
32. Spanish population census 1930: Mary Nash, Mujer, familia y trabajo en España, 1875-1936 (Barcelona: Anthropos, Editorial del hombre, 1983), p. 50 (9.7 per cent); Roser Nicolau, 'La población, siglos XIX-XX', in Albert Carreras (ed.), Estadísticas históricas de España: Siglos XIX y XX (Madrid: Fundación Banco Exterior, 1989), p. 77 (9.1 per cent); Willms, 'Grundzüge', p. 35. French population census 1931: Marchand and Thélot, Deux siècles, p. 179. Italian population census 1931: Sarti, 'Da serva', p. 106. On methodological problems of Spanish censuses see Cristina Borderias, 'La transición de la actividad femenina en el mercado de trabajo barcelonés (1856-1930): Teoría social y realidad histórica del sistema estadístico moderno', in Carmen Sarasúa and Lina Gálvez (eds), ¿Privilegios o eficiencia? Mujeres y hombres en los mercados de trabajo (San Vincente del Raspeig: Publicaciones de la Universidad de Alicante, 2003), pp. 241-73.
33. Spanish population census 1950.
34. Danivle Bussy Genevois, 'Donne di Spagna dalla Repubblica al franchismo', in Storia delle donne, vol. 5, pp. 213-31, here p. 227.
35. Maria del Carmen Muñoz Ruiz, 'Domestic Service and Social Security in Franco's Spain: The Montepío Nacional del Servicio Doméstico', in SPP, vol. 3.
36. Edelmira Garcia Araujo, 'El servicio doméstico: Problemas y soluciones', Revista de Trabajo 10-11 (1958), pp. 53-67, here p. 59.
37. Colectivo Ioé, Mujer, inmigración y trabajo (Madrid: Imserso, 2001), p. 155, available from: . On the importance of domestic service for women migrating from the countryside to the cities see Cristina Borderías, 'Las mujeres, autoras des sus trayectorias personales y familiares: A travès des servicio doméstico', Historia y Fuente Oral 6 (1991), pp. 105-21.
38. OECD, Social Expenditure Database 2004, available from: .
39. Lewis A. Coser, 'Servants: The Obsolescence of an Occupational Role', Social Forces 52 (1973), pp. 31-40, here p. 39. See also, Vilhelm A. Aubert, 'The Housemaid: An Occupational Role in Crisis', Acta Sociologica 1 (1955), pp. 149-58.
40. OECD, Labour Market Statistics, . In Norway, in 1981 domestic workers represented 0.5 per cent of the economically active population.
41. Lise Widding Isaksen, 'Gender and Globalization: Care across Borders. New Patterns of Institutional Interaction: The Case of Norway', in Antoinette Fauve-Chamoux (ed.), Domestic Service and the Formation of European Identity: Understanding the Globalization of Domestic Work, 16th-21st Centuries (Bern and Berlin: Peter Lang, 2004; hereafter AFC), pp. 455-69, here p. 455 and in SPP, vol. 2; on Sweden see Ellinor Platzer in this volume.
42. Eurostat, 'Social Protection: Expenditure on Pensions Accounted for 12.7 per cent of the EU's GDP in 1999', News Releases, Population & Social Conditions, No. 50/2002, 25 April 2002 (Eurostat publications are available on the website, ); Roberto Ippolito, Vivere in Europa: Un confronto in cifre (Rome-Bari: Laterza, 2002), p. 55. See also Eurostat, 'Social Protection in the EU in 1998: Decreasing Share of Social Contributions in Funding of Social Protection', News Releases, Population & Social Conditions, No 134/ 2000, 4 December 2000.
43. Eurostat, People in Europe: Eurostat Yearbook 2002 (Eurostat, 2002), p. 19.
44. Francesca Bettio and Paola Villa, 'A Mediterranean Perspective on the Breakdown of the Relationship between Participation and Fertility', Cambridge Journal of Economics 22 (1998), pp. 137-71.
45. Istat, Rapporto annuale: La situazione nel paese nel 2001 (Rome: Istat, 2002; hereafter RA 2001; the publications by the Italian statistical office are available on the website ), p. 128 (41.9 per cent in 1993, 47.3 per cent in 2001).
46. Female unemployment was much higher in Italy than in other European countries, except Spain and Greece, see Eurostat, People in Europe, p. 20.
47. RA 2001, p. 131.
48. Bettio and Villa, 'A Mediterranean Perspective'; Istat, Famiglia, soggetti sociali e condizione dell'infanzia: Indagine multiscopo sulle famiglie, anno 1998 (Rome: Istat, 1999); Gianpiero Dalla Zuanna, 'The Banquet of Aeolus: A Familistic Interpretation of Italy's Lowest Low Fertility', Demographic Research 4 (2001), pp. 133-62, available at .
49. Bettio and Villa, 'A Mediterranean Perspective'; Eurostat, People in Europe, p. 6. In the last fewyears there has been a slight recovery in the birth rate, see e.g., .
50. Istat, Rapporto annuale: La situazione del paese nel 1999 (Rome: Istat, 2000; hereafter RA 1999), pp. 478-9.
51. Pier Paolo Viazzo and Francesco Zanotelli, 'Parentela e assistenza: quali contributi dall'antropologia?', in Ida Fazio and Daniela Lombardi (eds), Generazioni. Legami di parentela tra passato e presente (Roma: Viella, 2006), chapt. 1.
52. Istat, Rapporto annuale: La situazione del Paese nel 2000 (Rome: Istat, 2001; hereafter RA 2000), pp. 251-3; RA 1999, pp. 469-74.
53. Colombo, 'Struttura e cambiamenti'. Data by Colombo mainly refers to families with children under six; data on families with children under fourteen shows a different trend between 1998 and 2003, see Istat, Rapporto annuale 2004: La situazione del paese nel 2004 (Rome: Istat, 2005; hereafter RA 2004), p. 291.
54. World Health Organisation (WHO), Active Ageing: A Policy Framework (Geneva: WHO, 2002), p. 8.
55. RA 1999, pp. 457-8, 460-61; Marzio Barbagli, Maria Castiglioni and Gianpiero Dalla Zuanna, Fare famiglia in Italia: Un secolo di cambiamenti (Bologna: Il Mulino, 2003), p. 201.
56. Italian adult women spend weekly, on average, thirty-five hours caring for their families and doing housework, while men only spend eight hours, CNEL, Lavoro non pagato e condizioni di vita, available at .
57. RA 1999, p. 473; RA 2004, pp. 292-3.
58. RA 1999, p. 466; RA 2004, p. 291.
59. ; RA 2004, p. 296.
60. Marzio Barbagli, 'Family and Kinship in Italy', in Marianne Gullestad and Martine Segalen (eds), Family and Kinship in Europe (London and Washington: Pinter, 1997), pp. 33-48; David S. Reher, 'Family Ties in Western Europe: Persistent Contrasts', Population and Development Review 24 (1998), pp. 203-34; Dalla Zuanna, 'The Banquet of Aeolus'; Barbagli, Castiglioni and Dalla Zuanna, Fare famiglia in Italia, see esp. chs 1 and 4.
61. David S. Reher, 'Family Ties in Western Europe', p. 209.
62. See e.g., Vera Zamagni (ed.), Povertà e innovazioni istituzionali in Italia dal Medioevo ad oggi (Bologna: Il Mulino, 2000).
63. On the unequal presence of servants in different Italian areas see Arru, 'The Distinguishing Features of Domestic Service in Italy'; Giovanna Da Molin, 'Family Forms and Domestic Service in Southern Italy from the Seventeenth to the Nineteenth Century', both in Journal of Family History 15 (1990), respectively pp. 547-66 and pp. 503-27; Raffaella Sarti, Europe at Home: Family and Material Culture (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002), original Italian edition, Vita di casa. Abitare, mangiare, vestire nell'Europa moderna (Bari-Rome: Laterza, 1999), pp. 50-1, English edition; Pier Paolo Viazzo, 'What's So Special About the Mediterranean?', Continuity and Change 18 (2003), pp. 111-37, all with further references to Italian literature.
64. Barbagli, Castiglioni and Dalla Zuanna, Fare famiglia in Italia, pp. 209-14.
65. On this difference see the Introduction to this Forum, with further references.
66. Raffaella Sarti, 'Servire al femminile, servire al maschile nella Bologna sette-ottocentesca', in Paola Nava (ed.), Operaie, serve, maestre, impiegate (Turin: Rosenberg & Sellier, 1992), pp. 237-64; Angiolina Arru, Il servo: Storia di una carriera nel Settecento (Bologna: Il Mulino, 1995); Sandra Cavallo, 'Family Obligations and Inequalities in Access toCare in Northwestern Italy, Seventeenth to Eighteenth Centuries', in Peregrine Horden and Richard Smith (eds), The Locus of Care: Families, Communities, Instititions and the Provision of Welfare since Antiquity (London: Routledge, 1998), pp. 90-110; Miscali Monica, 'Servir au féminin, servir au masculin: Maîtres et serviteurs dans une communauté de la Sardaigne au XIXe siècle', in SPP, vol. 2; Raffaella Sarti, 'Uno di famiglia? Posizione e ruolo del personale domestico nella compagine familiare tra età moderna e contemporanea', paper presented at the conference Generazioni. Legami di parentela tra passato e presente, Pisa, Italy, 29 September-1 October 2005.
67. See the Introduction to this Forum, notes 39-43.
68. Expenditure on Domestic Services at Constant Prices, 1963-1998 (Selected Years): Social Trends 30, available at . The data also includes expenses for not strictly domestic services, but is in any case quite impressive. See also Nicky Gregson and Michelle Lowe, Servicing the Middle Classes: Class, Gender and Waged Domestic Labour in Contemporary Britain (London and New York: Routledge, 1994); Rosie Cox, 'Exploring the Growth of Paid Domestic Labour: A Case Study of London', Geography 85 (2000), pp. 241-51.
69. Piet Renooy, Steffan Ivarsson, Olga van der Wusten-Gritsai and Emco Meijer, Undeclared Work in an Enlarged Union. An Analysis of Undeclared Work: An In-Depth Study of Specific Items (European Union: Directorate General for Employment and Social Affairs, May 2004; hereafter UW 2004), p. 171.
70. Nicola Mayer-Ahuja, 'Three Worlds of Cleaning: Women's Experiences of Precarious Labor in the Public Sector, Cleaning Companies and Private Households of West Germany, 1973-1998', Journal of Women's History 16 (2004), pp. 116-41; UW 2004, p. 169; Juürgen Schupp, 'Quantitative Verbreitung von Erwerbstätigkeit in privaten Haushalten Deutschlands', Deutsches Institut für Wirtschaftsforschung, Materialien 11 (2002), p. 24, also published in Claudia Gather, Birgit Geissler and Maria S. Rerrich (eds), Weltmarkt Privathaushalt: Bezahlte Haushaltsarbeit im globalen Wandel (Münster: Westfälisches Dampfboot, 2002), pp. 50-71.
71. Thomas Amossé, 'L'Espace de métiers de 1990à 1999', Insee première, 2001, n. 790.
72. Suzy Pasleau and Isabelle Schopp, 'The Three Colours of Domestic Service in Belgium', in AFC, pp. 435-53, here p. 440, French version in SPP, vol. 2
73. Raffaella Sarti, '"Noi abbiamo visto tante città, abbiamo un'altra cultura". Servizio domestico, migrazioni e identità di genere in Italia: Uno sguardo di lungo periodo', Polis 18 (2004), pp. 17-46, here p. 19; Asher Colombo, 'Il mito del lavoro domestico: Struttura e cambiamenti in Italia (1970-2003)', Polis 19 (2005), pp. 435-64. It has to be tressed that the data refers to the category 'Servizi domestici presso famiglie e convivenze' and also includes domesticworkers employed by people living together without being married or kin.
74. Colectivo Ioé, Mujer, p. 449; Sònia Parella Rubio, Mujer, inmigrante y trabajadora: La triple discriminación (Barcelona: Anthropos, 2003), pp. 290-91.
75. Clare Ungerson, 'Commodified CareWork in European Labour Markets', European Societies 5 (2003), pp. 377-96; Ester de Ruijter, 'Trends in the Outsourcing of DomesticWork and Childcare in The Netherlands: Compositional or Behavioral Change?', Acta Sociologica 47 (2004), pp. 219-34; Isaksen, 'Gender and Globalization', pp. 455-69 and in SPP, vol. 2 and Platzer in this Forum.
76. Giuseppe Sciortino, 'Immigration in a Mediterranean Welfare State: The Italian Experience in Comparative Perspective', Journal of Comparative Policy Analysis 6 (2004), pp. 111-29.
77. Istat, L'occupazione non regolare nelle stime di contabilità nazionale secondo il Sec 95. Anni 1992-1999, dati analitici maggio 2001, Tables 1.3 and 1.4; Sarti, 'Noi abbiamo visto', p. 19.
78. My calculation on the data published by Olga Turrini, Casalinghe di riserva: Lavoratrici domestiche e famiglia borghese (Rome: Coines, 1977), pp. 21, 51-3. 51-3.
79. Parella Rubio, Mujer, p. 291; Odierna, Die heimliche Rückkehr, pp. 68-9.
80. According to the Italian statistical office evaluation I mentioned above, in 2002 there were 1,170,000 domestic workers. In 2002, there were 120,000 Italian domestic workers regularly enrolled in the Inps and 147,000 foreigners. Morever, 343,350 were 'regularised' thanks to the amnesty, see Inps and Caritas, Il mondo della collaborazione domestica: i dati del cambiamento, unpublished document, 2004 (Monitoraggio dei flussi migratori in collaborazione con il 'Dossier Statistico Immigrazione Caritas/Migrantes'; available at ).
81. On feminisation in Italy see: Marzio Barbagli, Sotto lo stesso tetto: Mutamenti della famiglia in Italia dal XV al XX secolo (Bologna: Il Mulino, 1984), pp. 230-33; Arru, Il servo; Maria Casalini, Servitü, nobili e borghesi nella Firenze dell'Ottocento (Florence: Olschki, 1997); Maria Casalini, 'Le Service: Un métier "féminin"? Une recherche sur la Toscane au XIXe siècle', paper presented at the 13th Economic History Congress, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 22-26 July 2002, available at ; Raffaella Sarti, 'Notes on the Feminization of Domestic Service. Bologna as a Case Study (18th-19th Centuries)', in Antoinette Fauve-Chamoux and Ludmila Fialová (eds), Le hénomène de la domesticité en Europe (Prague: Acta Demographica, XIII, Ceská emografická Sociologickí' Ustav AV CR, 1997), pp. 125-63; Sarti, 'Noi abbiamo', pp. 24, 35. On feminisation in Spain see Carmen Sarasúa, Criados, nodrizas y amos: El servicio doméstico en la formaciòn del mercado del trabajo madrileno, 1758-1868 (Madrid: Siglo Venintiuno, 1994) and the following note.
82. Isidro Dubert, 'Domestic Service and Social Modernization in Urban Galicia, 1752-1920', Continuity and Change 14 (1999), pp. 207-26; Isidro Dubert, Del campo a la ciudad: Migraciones, familia y espacio urbano en la historia de Galicia, 1708-1924 (Vigo: Nigra-Consorcio de Santiago, 2001), pp. 273-319. On domestic service in twentieth-century La Coruña see Jesús Mirás-Araujo, 'Una aproximación al peso del servicio doméstico femenino en la ciudad de A Coruña entre 1900 y 1960', Revista HMiC, 2003, available at .
83. .
84. According to original 1901 census data for England and Wales, female servants made up 96.4 per cent of indoor servants, see Matthew Woollard, 'The Classification of Domestic Servants in England and Wales, 1851-1951', in SPP, vol. 2. For other calculations of the servant gender composition see Sarti, 'Notes', p. 163.
85. Sarti, 'Notes'; Sarti, 'Who Are Servants? Defining Domestic Service in Western Europe (16th- 20th Centuries)', in SPP, vol. 2.
86. Sarti, 'Notes', pp. 130-31.
87. Christiane Klapisch-Zuber, 'Célibat et service féminins dans la Florence du XVe siècle', Annales de démographie historique (Paris: Société de démographie historique, 1981), pp. 289-302; Christiane Klapisch-Zuber, 'Women Servants in Florence (14th-15th Century)', in Barbara Hanawalt (ed.), Women and Work in Preindustrial Europe (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986), pp. 56-80; Dennis Romano, 'The Regulation of Domestic Service in Renaissance Venice', Sixteenth Century Journal 22 (1991), pp. 661-77; Dennis Romano, Housecraft and Statecraft: Domestic Service in Renaissance Venice, 1400-1600 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), pp. xxi, 229-30. For other cases of variations in the gender composition of domestic staff see Sarti, 'Notes'; Sarti, 'Servire al femminile', pp. 237-42. As for rural service see, for instance, Richard M. Smith, 'Women's Work and Marriage in Pre-Industrial England: Some Speculations', in Istituto Internazionale di Storia Economica 'F. Datini', Prato 1990, La donna nell'economia, secc. XIII-XVIII, Simonetta Cavaciocchi (ed.) (Florence: Le Monnier, 1990), pp. 31-55.
88. Sarti, 'Servire al femminile', p. 241; Raffaella Sarti, Quali diritti per 'la donna'? Servizio domestico e identità di genere dalla rivoluzione francese ad oggi (Bologna: S.i.p., 2000), ; Raffaella Sarti, 'Freedom and Citizenship? The Legal Status of Servants and Domestic Workers in a Comparative Perspective (16th-20th Centuries)', in SPP, vol. 3.
89. Sarti, 'Noi abbiamo visto'. Regular domestic workers have to be enrolled into the Inps.
90. Parella Rubio, Mujer, p. 512.
91. For census data see Table 2. According to the data published by Gilles-Laurent Rayssac, Laurent Pouquet, Marie-Odile Simon, Véronique Le Dantec and Claude Legrand, L'Aideà domicile et les employés de maison (Paris: La Documentation française - Ministère de l'emploi et de la solidarité, 1999), p. 265, in 1995 the figure was 6.3 per cent.
92. Kyoko Shinozaki, 'Making Sense of Conflicts: Cross-Border Identities of Filipina/Filipino Domestic Workers in Germany', in SPP, vol. 4.
93. Sarti, 'Servire al femminile', pp. 237-42; Sarti, 'Quali diritti'; Sarti, 'Noi abbiamo visto', pp. 22-7; Raffaella Sarti, 'The True Servant: Self-Definition of Male Domestics in an Italian City (Bologna, 17th-19th Centuries)', The History of the Family 10 (2005), pp. 407-33; Shinozaki, 'Making Sense of Conflicts'; Jacqueline Andall and Raffaella Sarti, Servizio domestico, migrazioni e identità di genere in Italia dall'Ottocento a oggi, Special Issue of Polis 18 (2004); Maria Rita Bartolomei, 'Processi migratori e lavoro domestico: Il caso degli indiani del Kerala a Macerata', Polis 19 (2005), pp. 203-31; Francesca Scrinzi, 'Les Hommes de ménage, ou comment aborder la féminisation des migrations en interviewant des hommes', Migrations Société 17 (2005), pp. 229-40. For a couple of examples of studies on non-European countries see Raka Ray, 'Masculinity, Femininity and Servitude: DomesticWorkers in Calcutta in the Late Twentieth Century', Feminist Studies 26 (2000), pp. 691-718; Radhika Chopra, 'Rethinking Pro-Feminism: Men, Work and Family in India', paper presented at the Expert Group Meeting on The Role of Men and Boys in Achieving Gender Equality, 21-24 October 2003, Brasilia, Brazil, available at . A rich comparison is provided by JoséMoya, 'Domestic Service in a Global Perspective: Gender,Migration, and Ethnic Niches', paper presented at the conference Niches, Gender and Ethnicity, University of Leiden, the Netherlands, 17-18 June 2004, forthcoming in Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies (Winter 2006).
94. Karen Tranberg Hansen, Distant Companions: Servants and Employers in Zambia, 1900-1985 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1989).
95. On different interpretations of current change see Helma Lutz, 'At Your Service Madam! The Globalization of Domestic Service', Feminist Review 70 (2002), pp. 89-104.
96. Sarti, 'Noi abbiamo visto', p. 23.
97. As I mentioned, in Italy the share of men among regular domestic workers, after increasing, slightly declined in the last few years. This is possibly a result of the declining percentage of Filipinos among domestics working in Italy, see Inps/Caritas, Il mondo.
98. Janet Henshall Momsen (ed.), Gender, Migration and Domestic Service (London: Routledge, 1999), p. 1.
99. Rosie Cox, 'The Role of Ethnicity in Shaping the Domestic Employment Sector in Britain', in Momson, Gender, Migration and Domestic Service, pp. 134-47, here p. 136. See also Chaplin, 'Domestic Service', p. 111; Bridget Anderson, Britain's Secret Slaves (London: Anti-Slavery International, 1993); Social Alert, Invisible servitude: Etude approfondie sur les travailleurs domestiques dans le monde (Série 'Recherche sur les Droits de l'homme'; Brussels, 2000); Institute of Race Relations, Plight of Domestic Workers in Britain, August 2003, available at .
100. Colectivo Ioé, Mujer, p. 449.
101. Jacqueline Andall, Gender, Migration and Domestic Service: The Politics of Black Women in Italy (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2000).
102. Sergio Talini and Mascia Masi, Il contratto di lavoro domestico: Lavoratori comunitari ed extracomunitari (Rome: EPC Editoria professionale, 1995), pp. 185-7.
103. Sarti, 'Noi abbiamo visto', p. 25.
104. 'Anziani in piazza per gli immigrati', Corriere della Sera, 23 November 2001; 'Gli anziani aMontecitorio: "Gli stranieri ci aiutano', La Repubblica, 23 November 2001.
105. See e.g., 'Immigrazione, il testo del governo: Espulsioni facili, niente sanatoria', La Repubblica, 14 September 2001 and the comments by Antonio Golini in Il Messaggero, 17 September 2001.
106. .
107. Eurispes, Il lavoro domestico in Italia: Regolare e sommerso (Rome: Eurispes, 2002), p. 31.
108. Inps/Caritas, Il mondo.
109. Cinzia Gubbini, 'Nel triangolo delle badanti', Il Manifesto, 9 November 2002.
110. Marzio Barbagli, Asher Colombo and Giuseppe Sciortino (eds), I sommersi e i sanati: Le regolarizzazioni degli immigrati in Italia (Bologna: Il Mulino, 2004).
111. Sarti, 'Noi abbiamo visto', p. 19; as for qualitative research see e.g., Bartolomei, 'Processi migratori'.
112. Social contribution for domestic workers and carers €1,549.37 can be deducted. In the last few years, local administrations have introduced many different kinds of subsidies to help people hiring carers; yet only in some cases is there a strict control to avoid subsidising undeclared work, see Alessandra Rossi, Anziani e assistenti immigrate: Strumenti per il welfare locale (Rome: Ediesse, 2004).
113. Pasleau and Schopp, 'The Three Colours', p. 446.
114. Jens Lind, 'Denmark: Private Service Growth - Towards a New Trajectory for Employment and Regulation?', in Jon Erik Dølvik (ed.), At Your Service? Comparative Perspectives on Employment and Labour Relations in the European Private Sector Services (Brussels: P.I.E.-Peter Lang, 2001), pp. 189-229 (for the quotation); Ellinor Platzer, 'Domestic Services and the Division of Labour: The Example of the Danish Home Service Scheme', Humanetten 10 (2002), . I am grateful to Ninna Nyberg Sørensen and Ellinor Platzer for information on the more recent changes to the scheme.
115. Pierre-Alain Audirac, Alice Tanay and Serge Zilberman, 'L'Evolution du poids des services et des emplois familiaux en France', in EP, pp. 94-8; UW 2004, pp. 165-6.
116. Annie Dussuet, '"On n'est pas des domestiques!" La difficile professionnalisation des services à domicile', Sextant 15-16 (2001), pp. 279-96, here pp. 279-80.
117. Pasleau and Schopp, 'The Three Colours', pp. 448-51; Suzy Pasleau and Isabelle Schopp, 'La Domesticité en Belgique au 20e siècle', Sextant 15-16 (2001), pp. 235-77, here pp. 258-60; UW 2004, p. 169.
118. The laws implementing the recommandations of the Hartz-commission have been called Hartz I, II, III and IV. The most important for the domestic service sector is 'Hartz II' ('Zweites Gesetz für moderne Dienstleistungen am Arbeitsmarkt', 23.12.2002).
119. Karen Jaehrling, 'Political Reforms in the Domestic Service Sector, Aims and Impact', in AFC, pp. 235-46 (quotation p. 243); Mayer-Ahuja, 'Three Worlds of Cleaning'; UW 2004, pp. 168-71.
120. Mayer-Ahuja, 'Three Worlds of Cleaning'; Nicole Mayer-Ahuja, Wieder dienen lernen? Vom westdeutschen 'Normalarbeitsverhältnis' zu prekärer Beschäftigung seit 1973 (Berlin: Edition Sigma, 2003).
121. Claudia Alemani, and Gabriella Castelletti, 'Introduzione', in Claudia Alemani and Maria Grazia Fasoli (eds), Donne in frontiera: Le colf nella transizione (Milan: Cens, 1994), p. 32; Eurispes, Il lavoro domestico, p. 2; Anne Flipo, 'La Demande de services de proximité: Une mise en perspective', in EP, pp. 103-35, here pp. 103, 120.
122. Yves Mérian and Mahrez Okba, 'Le Dispositif d'aide aux services de proximité', in EP, pp. 137-67, here p. 138.
123. Michèle Debonneuil and Reza Lahidji, 'Services de proximité, Etat et marché', in EP, pp. 41-60, here p. 41.
124. Gilbert Cette, Pierre Héritier, Dominique Taddei and Michel Théry, 'Stratégie de développement des emplois de proximité', in EP, pp. 9-40.
125. Cette, Héritier, Taddei and Théry, 'Stratégie de développement', pp. 16, 30; see also Dussuet, 'On n'est pas des domestiques!', p. 293.