Regional arrangements, securitization, and transnational security challenges: The African Union and the association of Southeast Asian Nations compared

Security Studies

Volumn 17, Issue 4, 2008, Pages 775-809

  Haacke, Jürgen ^a   Williams, Paul D ^b  

^a LONDON SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS   (United Kingdom)

^b GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 57549105237     PISSN: 09636412     EISSN: 15561852     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09636410802508014     Document Type: Article

References (161)

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2. Stephen M. Walt, The Origins of Alliances (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987), 21-26
3. Stephen M. Walt, "Alliances, Threats and US Grand Strategy," Security Studies 1, no. 3 (1992): 448-82
4. and Stephen M. Walt, Revolution and War (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1996), 19.
5. See, for example, the series of articles on "Balancing Acts" in International Security 30, no. 1 (2005): 7-139.
6. For example, Stephen M. Walt, "Testing Theories of Alliance Formation: The Case of Southwest Asia," International Organization 42, no. 2 (1988): 275-316
7. Steve Yetiv, "The Travails of Balance of Power Theory: The United States in the Middle East," Security Studies 15, no. 1 (2006): 70-105
8. and Robert S. Ross, "Balance of Power Politics and the Rise of China: Accommodation and Balancing in East Asia," Security Studies 15, no. 3 (2006): 355-95.
9. See Ole Wv̈er, Barry Buzan, Morten Kelstrup, and Pierre Lemaitre, Identity, Migration and the New Security Agenda in Europe (London: Routledge, 1993)
10. Ole Wav̈er, "Securitization and Desecuritization," in Ronnie D. Lipschutz, ed. On Security (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995), 46-86
11. Barry Buzan, Ole Waver, and Jaap de Wilde, Security: A New Framework for Analysis (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1998)
12. Bill McSweeney, "Identity and Security: Buzan and the Copenhagen School," Review of International Studies 22, no. 1 (1996): 81-94.
13. For example, Barry Buzan and Ole Waever, Regions and Powers: The Structure of International Security (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003).
14. For example, see Kwesi Aning, Africa: Confronting Complex Threats (Coping with Crisis Working Paper Series, International Peace Academy, New York, February 2007)
15. and Andrew T. H. Tan and J. D. Kenneth Boutin, ed., Non-Traditional Security Issues in Southeast Asia (Singapore: Select Books, 2001).
16. For overviews see Michael Desch, "Culture Clash: Assessing the Importance of Ideas in Security Studies," International Security 23, no. 1 (1998): 141-70
17. Ted Hopf, "The Promise of Constructivism in International Relations Theory," International Security 23, no. 1 (1998): 171-200
18. and Theo Farrell, "Constructivist Security Studies: Portrait of a Research Paradigm," International Studies Review 4, no. 1 (2002): 71-92.
19. Wv̈er, "Securitization and Desecuritization," 55.
20. Buzan et al., Security, 29.
21. As set out by Barry Buzan, People, States and Fear: An Agenda for International Security Studies in the Post-Cold War Era (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 2nd ed., 1991).
22. For example, see Ken Booth, "Security and Emancipation," Review of International Studies 17, no. 4 (1991): 313-27
23. Caroline Thomas, Global Governance, Development and Human Security (London: Pluto Press, 2000)
24. and Astri Suhrke, "Human Security and the Interest of States," Security Dialogue 30, no. 3 (1999): 265-76.
25. Buzan and Waever, Regions and Powers, 44-45.
26. Buzan et al., Security, 31.
27. For the early CS argument that security is about survival, see Waver, "Securitization and Desecuritization," 53.
28. Buzan et al., Security, 5.
29. Ibid., 21-22.
30. Ibid., 22.
31. Ibid., 23.
32. Waver et al., Identity, Migration, and the New Security Agenda in Europe.
33. Mely Callabero-Anthony and Ralf Emmers, "Understanding the Dynamics of Securitizing Non- Traditional Security" in Mely Caballero-Anthony, Ralf Emmers, and Amitav Acharya, eds., Non-Traditional Security in Asia: Dilemmas in Securitization (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2006), 5-6
34. and Claire Wilkinson, "The Copenhagen School on Tour in Kyrgyzstan: Is Securitization Theory Useable Outside Europe?" Security Dialogue 38, no. 1 (2007): 5-25.
35. See Pinar Bilgin, Ken Booth, and Richard Wyn Jones, "Security Studies: The Next Stage?" Nacão Defesa 84, no. 2 (1998): 131-57.
36. Also see the contributions in Keith Krause and Michael C. Williams, ed., Critical Security Studies: Concepts and Cases (London: UCL Press, 1997)
37. and Ken Booth, Theory of World Security (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), chap 3.
38. Lene Hansen, "The Little Mermaid's Silent Security Dilemma and the Absence of Gender in the Copenhagen School" Millennium 29, no. 2 (2000): 285-306.
39. See Bill McSweeney, Security, Identity, and Interests: A Sociology of International Relations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999)
40. as well as his earlier exchange with the CS: McSweeney, "Identity and Security"
41. Barry Buzan and Ole Waver, "Slippery? Contradictory? Sociologically Untenable? The Copenhagen School Replies" Review of International Studies 23, no. 2 (1997): 241-50
42. and Bill McSweeney, "A Response to Buzan and Waver" Review of International Studies 24, no. 1 (1998): 137-40.
43. Buzan et al., Security, 26.
44. Ibid., 25.
45. Ralf Emmers, Non-Traditional Security in the Asia-Pacific: The Dynamics of Securitisation (Singapore: Eastern Universities Press, 2004), 15.
46. Ibid., 15.
47. Neal Imperial, "Securitisation and the Challenge of ASEAN Counter-terrorism Cooperation," ed. Melissa G. Curley and Nick Thomas (working paper, Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong, 2005).
48. Also see Alan Collins, "Securitization, Frankenstein's Monster and Malaysian Education," Pacific Review 18, no. 4 (2005): 565-86
49. and Nicole Jackson, "International Organizations, Security Dichotomies and the Trafficking of Persons and Narcotics in Post-Soviet Central Asia: A Critique of the Securitization Framework," Security Dialogue 37, no. 3 (2006): 299-317.
50. Buzan et al., Security, 5.
51. Ralf Emmers, "Securitization" in Contemporary Security Studies, ed. Alan Collins (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 117.
52. Rita Abrahamsen, "Blair's Africa: The Politics of Securitization and Fear" Alternatives 30, no. 1 (2005): 59.
53. Buzan et al., Security, 25.
54. The CS had argued that securitization "can be studied directly; it does not need indicators."
55. See ibid., 25.
56. Mely-Caballero-Anthony and Ralf Emmers, "The Dynamics of Securitization in Asia" in Studying Non-Traditional Security in Asia: Trends and Issues, comp. Ralf Emmers, Mely Caballero-Anthony, and Amitav Acharya (Singapore: Marshall Cavendish, 2006).
57. Hansen, "The Little Mermaid's Silent Security Dilemma."
58. The securitizing move need not always be made by state or government representatives. The framework also allows for instance nonstate groups or organizations to securitize developments and issues.
59. Buzan et al., Security, 25.
60. Ibid., 28.
61. To be fair, the Copenhagen School does acknowledge that in certain sectors, especially the societal sector, it is hard to draw rigid boundaries between existential and lesser threats.
62. See ibid., 23.
63. Jeff Huysmans, "Revisiting Copenhagen: Or, On the Creative Development of a Security Studies Agenda in Europe," European Journal of International Relations 4, no. 4 (1998): 501.
64. For instance, see the attempt to link securitization with classical security complex theory to achieve an understanding of regional security in Buzan et al., Security, 42-45
65. and Buzan and Waver, Regions and Powers.
66. Thomas Risse-Kappen, "Introduction" in Bringing Transnational Relations Back In, ed. Thomas Risse-Kappen (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 3.
67. Report of the Working Group on State Security and Transnational Threats, The Princeton Project on National Security (2005), http://www.princeton.edu/~ppns/conferences/reports/fall/SSTT.pdf, 3.
68. Barry Buzan and Ole Waver, "Macrosecuritisation and Security Constellations: Reconsidering Scale in Securitisation Theory" (paper presented at LSE Staff Research Seminar, 8 November 2006), 5.
69. See Muthiah Alagappa, ed. Asian Security Practice: Material and Ideational Influences (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998)
70. and Brian Job, "The Insecurity Dilemma: National, Regime, and State Securities in the Third World," in The Insecurity Dilemma: National Security of Third World States, ed. Brian Job (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1992).
71. "Solemn Declaration on a Common African Defence and Security Policy," agreed at the AU's second extraordinary summit, Sirte, Libya, 28 February 2004.
72. A list of such acts of aggression is given in Article 1 of the "African Union Non-Aggression and Common Defence Pact," Abuja, 31 January 2005.
73. "Protocol Relating to the Establishment of the Peace and Security Council of the African Union" (9 July 2002), article 6(a) (hereafter "PSC Protocol").
74. The protocol came into force on 26 December 2003, and the PSC was officially launched on 25 May 2004. Although the assembly constitutes the Union's supreme body, it has delegated its powers to the PSC to act as the primary forum through which the AU is supposed to "promote peace, security and stability in Africa," "PSC Protocol," article 6(a).
75. The current (2007-08) members are Algeria, Angola, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Congo (Brazzaville), Egypt, Ethiopia, Gabon, Ghana, Malawi, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, and Uganda.
76. "PSC Protocol," 3
77. and "Solemn Declaration," 5-6.
78. See AU doc. Assembly/AU/Decl. 1 (V), 2.
79. Author's interview, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 16 May 2007.
80. See AU doc. EX.CL/Decl.255 (VIII), Khartoum, Sudan, 16-21 January 2006.
81. "Resolution on the Strengthening of Cooperation and Coordination Among African States," OAU doc. AHG/Res. 213, XXVIII, 1992.
82. It is worth noting that in April 1998 six African members of the League of Arab States - Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia - endorsed the Arab Convention for the Suppression of Terrorism in Cairo, Egypt.
83. The convention entered into force in December 2002.
84. "Plan of Action of the African Union High-Level Inter-Governmental Meeting on the Prevention and Combating of Terrorism in Africa," AU doc. Mtg./HLIG/Conv. Terror/Plan (I), Algiers, Algeria, 11-14 September 2002.
85. Martin Ewi and Kwesi Aning, "Assessing the Role of the African Union in Preventing and Combating Terrorism in Africa," African Security Review 15, no. 3 (2006): 38.
86. See AU documents Assembly/AU/Decl.14 (II) and 15 (II), Maputo, Mozambique, 10-12 July 2003.
87. "Protocol to the OAU Convention on Preventing and Combating Terrorism," adopted by the Third Ordinary Session of the AU Assembly, Addis Ababa, 8 July 2004.
88. To date, the ACSRT operates with approximately 25 professional and 25 local staff. It did so for its first two years on a budget of $2 million donated by the Algerian government. By mid-2006, however, only one person at the AU's headquarters in Addis Ababa dealt with terrorism matters.
89. Ewi and Aning, "Assessing the Role of the African Union," 46.
90. See ibid.
91. See Jessica R. Piombo, "Terrorism and U.S. Counter-Terrorism Programs in Africa: An Overview," Strategic Insights 6, no. 1 (2007), http://www.ccc.nps.navy.mil/si/2007/Jan/piomboJan07.asp.
92. Alex de Waal, AIDS and Power (London: Zed, 2006); and Nana Poku, AIDS in Africa (Cambridge: Polity, 2006).
93. See Anthony Butler, "South Africa's HIV/AIDS Policy, 1994-2004," African Affairs 104, no. 417 (2005): 591-614.
94. OAU doc. OAU/SPS/ABUJA/4.
95. AU doc. Assembly/AU/Decl. 6 (II), Maputo, Mozambique, 10-12 July 2003.
96. AU doc. Assembly/AU/Decl. 55 (IV), Abuja, Nigeria, 30-31 January 2005.
97. AU doc. Assembly/AU/Decl.115 (VII), Banjul, the Gambia, 1-2 July 2006.
98. ASEAN includes Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, the Philippines, Thailand as well as Brunei, Vietnam, Burma/Myanmar, Laos, and Cambodia.
99. The ministerial meeting builds on the discussions of the Senior Officials Meeting on Transnational Crime.
100. ASEAN Plan of Action to Combat Transnational Crime, http://www.aseansec.org/16133.htm.
101. Ibid.
102. "Work Programme to Implement the ASEAN Plan of Action to Combat Transnational Crime," Kuala Lumpur, 17 May 2002.
103. "Press Chairperson of the Ninth ASEAN Summit and the Seventh ASEAN+3," Summit, Bali, 7 October 2003, http://www.aseansec.org/15259.htm.
104. It has for instance also been on the agenda of the ASEAN Chiefs of Police and ASEAN Army Chiefs.
105. Second Informal Summit, Kuala Lumpur, 14-16 December 1997.
106. "Chairman's Press Statement on ASEAN Third Informal Summit," Manila, 28 November 1999, http://www.aseansec.org/5300.htm.
107. 4th Informal ASEAN Summit, Singapore, 22-25 November, http://www.aseansec.org/5310.htm.
108. "Chairperson's Statement of the 12th ASEAN Summit," Cebu, 13 January 2007.
109. "Joint Communique," 31st ASEAN Ministerial Meeting, Manila, 24-25 July 1998.
110. "Joint Communique," 32nd ASEAN Ministerial Meeting, Singapore, 23-24 July 1999.
111. "Joint Communique," 33rd ASEAN Ministerial Meeting, Bangkok, 24-25 July 2000.
112. "Joint Communique," 35th ASEAN Ministerial Meeting, Bandar Seri Begawan, 29-30 July 2002.
113. "Joint Communique," 40th ASEAN Ministerial Meeting, Manila, 29-30 July 2007.
114. "ASEAN Declaration on Transnational Crime," Manila, 20 December 1997.
115. "Joint Communique," 2nd ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Transnational Crime, Yangon, 23 June 1999, emphasis added.
116. "ASEAN Plan of Action to Combat Transnational Crime," 2.
117. "Joint Communique," 3rd ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Transnational Crime, Singapore, 11 October 2001.
118. "Joint Communique," 4th ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Transnational Crime, Bangkok, 8 January 2004.
119. "Joint Communique," 5th ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Transnational Crime, Hanoi, 29 November 2005, emphasis added.
120. This assessment can also be reached when examining transnational crimes individually. See the contributions in Philips Jusario Vermonte, ed. Small Is (Not) Beautiful: The Problem of Small Arms in Southeast Asia (Jakarta: Centre for Strategic and International Studies, 2004)
121. Tamara Renee Shie, "Maritime Piracy in Southeast Asia: Evolution and Progress of Intra-ASEAN Cooperation" in Piracy, Maritime Terrorism and Securing the Malacca Straits, ed. Graham Gerard Ong-Webb (Singapore: ISEAS, 2006), 163-89.
122. For other assessments see Ralf Emmers, "ASEAN and the Securitization of Transnational Crime," The Pacific Review 16, no. 3 (2003): 419-38
123. and Un Sovannasam, The Association of Southeast Asian Nations' (ASEAN) Efforts in Dealing with Transnational Crime (working paper, Centre of Asian Studies, University of Hong Kong, 2005).
124. Vientiane Action Programme, 7.
125. "Joint Communique," 39th ASEAN Ministerial Meeting, Kuala Lumpur, 25 July 2006.
126. "ASEAN-United States of America Joint Declaration for Cooperation to Combat International Terrorism," Bandar Seri Beget, 1 August 2002, http://www.aseansec.org/10574.htm.
127. The ASEAN-China joint declaration provides a nonexhaustive overview of nontraditional security challenges that matches ASEAN's almost completely except for the wording, even designating all eight as "priorities." These two declarations proved the forerunners of a series of several joint declarations to combat international terrorism, signed with the European Union (January 2003), India (October 2003), Russia (June 2004), Australia (June 2004), Japan (November 2004), Pakistan (July 2005), Korea (July 2005), New Zealand (July 2005), and Canada (July 2006). Some joint declarations have led to work plans on counterterrorism. ASEAN has also been working with China, Japan, and South Korea under the ASEAN Plus Three process to address terrorism and transnational crime.
128. "2001 ASEAN Declaration on Joint Action to Counter Terrorism," Bandar Seri Begawan, 5 November 2001, http://www.aseansec.org/5962.htm.
129. Ibid.
130. Neal Imperial, "Securitisation and the Challenge of ASEAN Counter-terrorism Cooperation."
131. 2001 ASEAN Declaration on Joint Action to Counter Terrorism, Bandar Seri Begawan, 5 November 2001, http://www.aseansec.org/5962.htm.
132. ASEAN Efforts to Counter Terrorism, http://www.aseansec.org/14396.htm.
133. Sheldon W. Simon, "Southeast Asia's Defense Needs: Change or Continuity?" in Strategic Asia 2005-06: Military Modernization in an Era of Uncertainty, eds., Ashely J. Tellis and Michael Wills (Washington, D.C.: National Bureau of Asian Research, 2005), 292.
134. See also Jonathan T. Chow, "ASEAN Counterterrorism Cooperation Since 9/11," Asian Survey 45, no. 2 (2005): 302-21
135. and Ralf Emmers and Leonard C. Sebastian, "Terrorism and Transnational Crime in Southeast Asian International Relations" in International Relations in Southeast Asia, ed. Donald E. Weatherbee (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005), 156-86.
136. See for instance "Joint Communique," 38th ASEAN Ministerial Meeting, Vientiane, 26 July 2005.
137. "Joint Communique," 40th ASEAN Ministerial Meeting, Manila, 29-30 July 2007.
138. See UNAIDS/WHO AIDS Epidemic Update, December 2006, http://www.unaids.org/en/HIVdata/epi2006/default.asp
139. World Health Organization (WHO), Malaria Disease Burden in SEA Region, http://www.searo.who.int/EN/Section10/Section21/Section340_4018.htm.
140. "Joint Statement of the ASEAN+3 Ministers of Health Special Meeting on SARS," Kuala Lumpur, 26 April 2003.
141. "Joint Declaration of the Special ASEAN Leaders Meeting on SARS," Bangkok, 29 April 2003.
142. Curley and Thomas, "Human Security and Public Health in Southeast Asia," 28.
143. "Joint Statement of the Special ASEAN-China Leaders Meeting on SARS," Bangkok, 29 April 2003.
144. "Joint Communique, 36th ASEAN Ministerial Meeting," Phnom Penh, 16-17 June, 2003.
145. "Chairman's Statement of the 10th ASEAN Summit," Vientiane, 29 November 2004.
146. Up to early 2007, Vietnam had the highest number of cases (93) reported to the WHO, but Indonesia the world's greatest number of fatalities (63).
147. See "Cumulative Number of Confirmed Human Cases of Avian Influenza A/(H5N1)" Reported to WHO, http://www.who.int/csr/disease/ avian_influenza_country/cases_table_2007_02_16/en/index.html.
148. "Chairman's Statement of the 11th ASEAN Summit," Kuala Lumpur, 12 December 2005.
149. Ibid.
150. "Chairperson's Statement of the 12th ASEAN Summit," Cebu, 13 January 2007.
151. PanStop2007, http://www.wpro.who.int/sites/csr/PANSTOP2007.htm.
152. Such fears proved unfounded, however, as FDI figures for 2004 reached US$25.1 billion, a 22 percent year-on-year increase. "Chairman's Statement of the 11th ASEAN Summit," Kuala Lumpur, 12 December 2005.
153. Erik Bloom, Vincent de Wit, and Mary Jane Carangal-San Jose, Potential Economic Impact of an Avian Flu Pandemic on Asia (Asian Development Bank: ERD Policy Brief no. 42, November 2005), http://www.adb.org/ Documents/EDRC/Policy Briefs/PB042.pdf.
154. See AU docs Assembly/AU/Dec.134-164 (VIII) and Assembly/AU/Decl.1-6 (VIII), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 29-30 January 2007.
155. On ASEAN see Amitav Acharya, Constructing a Security Community in Southeast Asia: ASEAN and the Problem of Regional Order (London: Routledge, 2001)
156. and Jurgen Haacke, ASEAN's Diplomatic and Security Culture: Origins, Development and Prospects (London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003).
157. On the AU see Paul D. Williams, "From Non-Intervention to Non-Indifference: The Origins and Development of the African Union's Security Culture," African Affairs 106, no. 423 (2007): 253-79.
158. On intra-ASEAN relations, see for instance Andrew T.H. Tan, Southeast Asia: Threats in the Security Environment (Singapore: Marshall Cavendish, 2006).
159. Our analysis thus differs from that of Peter Chalk, "Disease and the Complex Processes of Securitization in the Asia-Pacific," in Caballero-Anthony et al (eds.), Non-Traditional Security in Asia, 124-30.
160. See Ben Kioko, "The Right of Intervention Under the African Union's Constitutive Act," International Review of the Red Cross 85, no. 852 (2003): 807-25.
161. See Adekeye Adebajo, Building Peace in West Africa (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2002).