Prevention of postmenopausal osteoporosis and associated fractures: Clinical evaluation of the choice between estrogen and bisphosphonates

Gynecological Endocrinology

Volumn 24, Issue 11, 2008, Pages 601-609

  Al Azzawi, Farook ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY HOSPITALS OF LEICESTER NHS TRUST   (United Kingdom)

^b LEICESTER ROYAL INFIRMARY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALENDRONIC ACID; BISPHOSPHONIC ACID DERIVATIVE; CLODRONIC ACID; CONJUGATED ESTROGEN; ESTROGEN; ETIDRONIC ACID; HYPOPHYSIS HORMONE; MEDROXYPROGESTERONE ACETATE; RALOXIFENE; RISEDRONIC ACID;

ABDOMINAL DISTENSION; ABDOMINAL PAIN; AGE DISTRIBUTION; BONE NECROSIS; BONE REMODELING; BREAST CANCER; CANCER RISK; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CLINICAL EVALUATION; CLINICAL TRIAL; CONSTIPATION; DIARRHEA; DRUG CHOICE; DRUG EFFICACY; DYSPEPSIA; EDITORIAL; ESOPHAGITIS; ESOPHAGUS EROSION; ESOPHAGUS STRICTURE; ESOPHAGUS ULCER; ETHNICITY; FLATULENCE; GASTROESOPHAGEAL REFLUX; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; HEADACHE; HIP FRACTURE; HOMEOSTASIS; HORMONE SUBSTITUTION; HUMAN; ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASE; LIFESPAN; MASTALGIA; MORPHOMETRICS; MUSCULOSKELETAL PAIN; NONHUMAN; OSSIFICATION; OSTEOBLAST; OSTEOCLAST; OSTEOLYSIS; POSTMENOPAUSE OSTEOPOROSIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; QUALITY OF LIFE; VENOUS THROMBOEMBOLISM; VERTEBRA FRACTURE; WOMEN'S HEALTH;

BONE DENSITY CONSERVATION AGENTS; BONE REMODELING; DIPHOSPHONATES; ESTROGEN REPLACEMENT THERAPY; FEMALE; FRACTURES, BONE; HUMANS; OSTEOPOROSIS, POSTMENOPAUSAL;

EID: 56749178455     PISSN: 09513590     EISSN: 14730766     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09513590802296245     Document Type: Editorial

References (118)

1. Riggs BL, Melton LJ 3rd. Involutional osteoporosis. N Engl J Med 1986;314:1676-1686.
2. Ott SM. Bone density in adolescents. N Engl J Med 1991;325:1646-1647.
3. Wark JD. Osteoporosis: pathogenesis, diagnosis, prevention and management. Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab 1993;7:151-181.
4. Hui SL, Wiske PS, Norton JA, Johnston CC Jr. A prospective study of change in bone mass with age in postmenopausal women. J Chronic Dis 1982;35:715-725.
5. Marshall D, Johnell O, Wedel H. Meta-analysis of how well measures of bone mineral density predict occurrence of osteoporotic fractures. BMJ 1996;312:1254-1259.
6. Cooper C. Femoral neck bone density and fracture risk. Osteoporos Int 1996;6(Suppl 3):24-26.
7. Kim N, Kadono Y, Takami M, Lee J, Lee SH, Okada F, Kim JH, Kobayashi T, Odgren PR, Nakano H, et al. Osteoclast differentiation independent of the TRANCE-RANK-TRAF6 axis. J Exp Med 2005;202:589-595.
8. Lambert C, Oury C, Dejardin E, Chariot A, Piette J, Malaise M, Merville MP, Franchimont N. Further insights in the mechanisms of interleukin-1β stimulation of osteoprotegerin in osteoblast-like cells. J Bone Miner Res 2007;22:1350-1361.
9. Karst M, Gorny G, Galvin RJ, Oursler MJ. Roles of stromal cell RANKL, OPG, and M-CSF expression in biphasic TGF-β regulation of osteoclast differentiation. J Cell Physiol 2004;200:99-106.
10. Yamamoto T, Saatcioglu F, Matsuda T. Cross-talk between bone morphogenic proteins and estrogen receptor signaling. Endocrinology 2002;143:2635-2642.
11. Hawse JR, Subramaniam M, Ingle JN, Oursler MJ, Rajamannan NM, Spelsberg TC. Estrogen-TGFβ cross-talk in bone and other cell types: role of TIEG, Runx2, and other transcription factors. J Cell Biochem 2008;103:383-392.
12. Yakar S, Rosen CJ, Beamer WG, Ackert-Bicknell CL, Wu Y, Liu JL, Ooi GT, Setser J, Frystyk J, Boisclair YR, et al. Circulating levels of IGF-1 directly regulate bone growth and density. J Clin Invest 2002;110:771-781.
13. Weitzmann MN, Pacifici R. The role of T lymphocytes in bone metabolism. Immunol Rev 2005;208:154-168.
14. Fuller K, Murphy C, Kirstein B, Fox SW, Chambers TJ. TNFα potently activates osteoclasts, through a direct action independent of and strongly synergistic with RANKL. Endocrinology 2002;143:1108-1118.
15. Nanes MS. Tumor necrosis factor-α: molecular and cellular mechanisms in skeletal pathology. Gene 2003;321:1-15.
16. Lam J, Takeshita S, Barker JE, Kanagawa O, Ross FP, Teitelbaum SL. TNF-α induces osteoclastogenesis by direct stimulation of macrophages exposed to permissive levels of RANK ligand. J Clin Invest 2000;106:1481-1488.
17. Wei S, Kitaura H, Zhou P, Ross FP, Teitelbaum SL. IL-1 mediates TNF-induced osteoclastogenesis. J Clin Invest 2005;115:282-290.
18. Abe E, Marians RC, Yu W, Wu XB, Ando T, Li Y, Iqbal J, Eldeiry L, Rajendren G, Blair HC, et al. TSH is a negative regulator of skeletal remodeling. Cell 2003;115:151-162.
19. Sun L, Peng Y, Sharrow AC, Iqbal J, Zhang Z, Papachristou DJ, Zaidi S, Zhu LL, Yaroslavskiy BB, Zhou H, et al. FSH directly regulates bone mass. Cell 2006;125:247-260.
20. Hase H, Ando T, Eldeiry L, Brebene A, Peng Y, Liu L, Amano H, Davies TF, Sun L, Zaidi M, et al. TNFα mediates the skeletal effects of thyroid-stimulating hormone. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006;103:12849-12854.
21. Iqbal J, Sun L, Kumar TR, Blair HC, Zaidi M. Follicle-stimulating hormone stimulates TNF production from immune cells to enhance osteoblast and osteoclast formation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006;103:14925-14930.
22. Kaneki H, Guo R, Chen D, Yao Z, Schwarz EM, Zhang YE, Boyce BF, Xing L. Tumor necrosis factor promotes Runx2 degradation through up-regulation of Smurf1 and Smurf2 in osteoblasts. J Biol Chem 2006;281:4326-4333.
23. Kousteni S, Bellido T, Plotkin LI, O'Brien CA, Bodenner DL, Han L, Han K, DiGregorio GB, Katzenellenbogen JA, Katzenellenbogen BS, et al. Nongenotropic, sex-nonspecific signaling through the estrogen or androgen receptors: dissociation from transcriptional activity. Cell 2001;104:719-730.
24. Onoe Y, Miyaura C, Ohta H, Nozawa S, Suda T. Expression of estrogen receptor β in rat bone. Endocrinology 1997;138:4509-4512.
25. Arts J, Kuiper GG, Janssen JM, Gustafsson JA, Lowik CW, Pols HA, van Leeuwen JP. Differential expression of estrogen receptors α and β mRNA during differentiation of human osteoblast SV-HFO cells. Endocrinology 1997;138:5067-5070.
26. Smith EP, Boyd J, Frank GR, Takahashi H, Cohen RM, Specker B, Williams TC, Lubahn DB, Korach KS. Estrogen resistance caused by a mutation in the estrogen-receptor gene in a man. N Engl J Med 1994;331:1056-1061.
27. Kousteni S, Han L, Chen JR, Almeida M, Plotkin LI, Bellido T, Manolagas SC. Kinase-mediated regulation of common transcription factors accounts for the bone-protective effects of sex steroids. J Clin Invest 2003;111:1651-1664.
28. Hofbauer LC, Lacey DL, Dunstan CR, Spelsberg TC, Riggs BL, Khosla S. Interleukin-1β and tumor necrosis factor-α, but not interleukin-6, stimulate osteoprotegerin ligand gene expression in human osteoblastic cells. Bone 1999;25:255-259.
29. Cenci S, Weitzmann MN, Roggia C, Namba N, Novack D, Woodring J, Pacifici R. Estrogen deficiency induces bone loss by enhancing T-cell production of TNF-α. J Clin Invest 2000;106:1229-1237.
30. Roggia C, Gao Y, Cenci S, Weitzmann MN, Toraldo G, Isaia G, Pacifici R. Up-regulation of TNF-producing T cells in the bone marrow: a key mechanism by which estrogen deficiency induces bone loss in vivo.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2001;98:13960-13965.
31. Stein B, Yang MX. Repression of the interleukin-6 promoter by estrogen receptor is mediated by NF-κB and C/EBP β. Mol Cell Biol 1995;15:4971-4979.
32. Galien R, Garcia T. Estrogen receptor impairs interleukin-6 expression by preventing protein binding on the NF-κB site. Nucleic Acids Res 1997;25:2424-2429.
33. Hughes DE, Dai A, Tiffee JC, Li HH, Mundy GR, Boyce BF. Estrogen promotes apoptosis of murine osteoclasts mediated by TGF-β. Nat Med 1996;2:1132-1136.
34. Reid IR, Eastell R, Fogelman I, Adachi JD, Rosen A, Netelenbos C, Watts NB, Seeman E, Ciaccia AV, Draper MW. A comparison of the effects of raloxifene and conjugated equine estrogen on bone and lipids in healthy postmenopausal women. Arch Intern Med 2004;164:871-879.
35. Bord S, Ireland DC, Beavan SR, Compston JE. The effects of estrogen on osteoprotegerin, RANKL, and estrogen receptor expression in human osteoblasts. Bone 2003;32:136-141.
36. Liao EY, Luo XH, Su X. Comparison of the effects of 17β-E2 and progesterone on the expression of osteoprotegerin in normal human osteoblast-like cells. J Endocrinol Invest 2002;25:785-790.
37. Chen C, Noland KA, Kalu DN. Modulation of intestinal vitamin D receptor by ovariectomy, estrogen and growth hormone. Mech Ageing Dev 1997;99:109-122.
38. Tiegs RD, Body JJ, Wahner HW, Barta J, Riggs BL, Heath H 3rd. Calcitonin secretion in postmenopausal osteoporosis. N Engl J Med 1985;312:1097-1100.
39. Fleisch H. Bisphosphonates. Pharmacology and use in the treatment of tumour-induced hypercalcaemic and metastatic bone disease. Drugs 1991;42:919-944.
40. Schenk R, Eggli P, Fleisch H, Rosini S. Quantitative morphometric evaluation of the inhibitory activity of new aminobisphosphonates on bone resorption in the rat. Calcif Tissue Int 1986;38:342-349.
41. Lehenkari PP, Kellinsalmi M, Napankangas JP, Ylitalo KV, Monkkonen J, Rogers MJ, Azhayev A, Vaananen HK, Hassinen IE. Further insight into mechanism of action of clodronate: inhibition of mitochondrial ADP/ATP translocase by a nonhydrolyzable, adenine-containing metabolite. Mol Pharmacol 2002;61:1255-1262.
42. Goldstein JL, Brown MS. Regulation of the mevalonate pathway. Nature 1990;343:425-430.
43. Roskoski R Jr. Protein prenylation: a pivotal posttranslational process. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2003;303:1-7.
44. Sato M, Grasser W. Effects of bisphosphonates on isolated rat osteoclasts as examined by reflected light microscopy. J Bone Miner Res 1990;5:31-40.
45. Razzouk S, Lieberherr M, Cournot G. Rac-GTPase, osteoclast cytoskeleton and bone resorption. Eur J Cell Biol 1999;78:249-255.
46. Christensen MS, Hagen C, Christiansen C, Transbol I. Dose-response evaluation of cyclic estrogen/gestagen in postmenopausal women: placebo-controlled trial of its gynecologic and metabolic actions. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1982;144:873-879.
47. Christiansen C, Christensen MS, Larsen NE, Transbol IB. Pathophysiological mechanisms of estrogen effect on bone metabolism. Dose-response relationships in early postmenopausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1982;55:1124-1130.
48. Munk-Jensen N, Pors Nielsen S, Obel EB, Bonne Eriksen P. Reversal of postmenopausal vertebral bone loss by oestrogen and progestogen: a double blind placebo controlled study. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1988;296:1150-1152.
49. Christiansen C, Riis BJ. Five years with continuous combined oestrogen/progestogen therapy. Effects on calcium metabolism, lipoproteins, and bleeding pattern. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1990;97:1087-1092.
50. Resch H, Pietschmann P, Krexner E, Woloszczuk W, Willvonseder R. Effects of one-year hormone replacement therapy on peripheral bone mineral content in patients with osteoporotic spine fractures. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 1990;123:14-18.
51. Rossouw JE, Anderson GL, Prentice RL, LaCroix AZ, Kooperberg C, Stefanick ML, Jackson RD, Beresford SA, Howard BV, Johnson KC, et al. Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: principal results from the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2002;288:321-333.
52. Anderson GL, Limacher M, Assaf AR, Bassford T, Beresford SA, Black H, Bonds D, Brunner R, Brzyski R, Caan B, et al. Effects of conjugated equine estrogen in postmenopausal women with hysterectomy: the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2004;291:1701-1712.
53. Vedi S, Purdie DW, Ballard P, Bord S, Cooper AC, Compston JE. Bone remodeling and structure in postmenopausal women treated with long-term, high-dose estrogen therapy. Osteoporos Int 1999;10:52-58.
54. Hosking D, Chilvers CE, Christiansen C, Ravn P, Wasnich R, Ross P, McClung M, Balske A, Thompson D, Daley M, et al. Prevention of bone loss with alendronate in postmenopausal women under 60 years of age. Early Postmenopausal Intervention Cohort Study Group. N Engl J Med 1998;338:485-492.
55. Harris ST, Watts NB, Genant HK, McKeever CD, Hangartner T, Keller M, Chesnut CH 3rd, Brown J, Eriksen EF, Hoseyni MS, et al. Effects of risedronate treatment on vertebral and nonvertebral fractures in women with postmenopausal osteoporosis: a randomized controlled trial. Vertebral Efficacy With Risedronate Therapy (VERT) Study Group. JAMA 1999;282:1344-1352.
56. Hosking D, Adami S, Felsenberg D, Andia JC, Valimaki M, Benhamou L, Reginster JY, Yacik C, Rybak-Feglin A, Petruschke RA, et al. Comparison of change in bone resorption and bone mineral density with once-weekly alendronate and daily risedronate: a randomised, placebo-controlled study. Curr Med Res Opin 2003;19:383-394.
57. Hooper MJ, Ebeling PR, Roberts AP, Graham JJ, Nicholson GC, D'Emden M, Ernst TF, Wenderoth D. Risedronate prevents bone loss in early postmenopausal women: a prospective randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Climacteric 2005;8:251-262.
58. Wasnich RD, Bagger YZ, Hosking DJ, McClung MR, Wu M, Mantz AM, Yates JJ, Ross PD, Alexandersen P, Ravn P, et al. Changes in bone density and turnover after alendronate or estrogen withdrawal. Menopause 2004;11:622-630.
59. Ensrud KE, Barrett-Connor EL, Schwartz A, Santora AC, Bauer DC, Suryawanshi S, Feldstein A, Haskell WL, Hochberg MC, Torner JC, et al. Randomized trial of effect of alendronate continuation versus discontinuation in women with low BMD: results from the Fracture Intervention Trial long-term extension. J Bone Miner Res 2004;19:1259-1269.
60. Fleisch H. Development of bisphosphonates. Breast Cancer Res 2002;4:30-34.
61. Vaisman DN, McCarthy AD, Cortizo AM. Bone-specific alkaline phosphatase activity is inhibited by bisphosphonates: role of divalent cations. Biol Trace Elem Res 2005;104:131-140.
62. Ravn P, Bidstrup M, Wasnich RD, Davis JW, McClung MR, Balske A, Coupland C, Sahota O, Kaur A, Daley M, et al. Alendronate and estrogen-progestin in the long-term prevention of bone loss: four-year results from the early postmenopausal intervention cohort study. A randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 1999;131:935-942.
63. Ravn P, Clemmesen B, Christiansen C. Biochemical markers can predict the response in bone mass during alendronate treatment in early postmenopausal women. Alendronate Osteoporosis Prevention Study Group. Bone 1999;24:237-244.
64. Ravn P, Hosking D, Thompson D, Cizza G, Wasnich RD, McClung M, Yates AJ, Bjarnason NH, Christiansen C. Monitoring of alendronate treatment and prediction of effect on bone mass by biochemical markers in the early postmenopausal intervention cohort study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1999;84:2363-2368.
65. Odvina CV, Zerwekh JE, Rao DS, Maalouf N, Gottschalk FA, Pak CY. Severely suppressed bone turnover: a potential complication of alendronate therapy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005;90:1294-1301.
66. Finkelstein JS, Hayes A, Hunzelman JL, Wyland JJ, Lee H, Neer RM. The effects of parathyroid hormone, alendronate, or both in men with osteoporosis. N Engl J Med 2003;349:1216-1226.
67. Black DM, Greenspan SL, Ensrud KE, Palermo L, McGowan JA, Lang TF, Garnero P, Bouxsein ML, Bilezikian JP, Rosen CJ. The effects of parathyroid hormone and alendronate alone or in combination in postmenopausal osteoporosis. N Engl J Med 2003;349:1207-1215.
68. Fleurence R, Torgerson DJ, Reid DM. Cost-effectiveness of hormone replacement therapy for fracture prevention in young postmenopausal women: an economic analysis based on a prospective cohort study. Osteoporos Int 2002;13:637-643.
69. Lindsay R, Cosman F, Lobo RA, Walsh BW, Harris ST, Reagan JE, Liss CL, Melton ME, Byrnes CA. Addition of alendronate to ongoing hormone replacement therapy in the treatment of osteoporosis: a randomized, controlled clinical trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1999;84:3076-3081.
70. Harris ST, Eriksen EF, Davidson M, Ettinger MP, Moffett AH Jr, Baylink DJ, Crusan CE, Chines AA. Effect of combined risedronate and hormone replacement therapies on bone mineral density in postmenopausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001;86:1890-1897.
71. Evio S, Tiitinen A, Laitinen K, Ylikorkala O, Valimaki MJ. Effects of alendronate and hormone replacement therapy, alone and in combination, on bone mass and markers of bone turnover in elderly women with osteoporosis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004;89:626-631.
72. Scimeca JC, Franchi A, Trojani C, Parrinello H, Grosgeorge J, Robert C, Jaillon O, Poirier C, Gaudray P, Carle GF. The gene encoding the mouse homologue of the human osteoclast-specific 116-kDa V-ATPase subunit bears a deletion in osteosclerotic (oc/oc) mutants. Bone 2000;26:207-213.
73. Quarello P, Forni M, Barberis L, Defilippi C, Campagnoli MF, Silvestro L, Frattini A, Chalhoub N, Vacher J, Ramenghi U. Severe malignant osteopetrosis caused by a GL gene mutation. J Bone Miner Res 2004;19:1194-1199.
74. Kong YY, Yoshida H, Sarosi I, Tan HL, Timms E, Capparelli C, Morony S, Oliveira-dos-Santos AJ, Van G, Itie A, et al. OPGL is a key regulator of osteoclastogenesis, lymphocyte development and lymph-node organogenesis. Nature 1999;397:315-323.
75. Li J, Sarosi I, Yan XQ, Morony S, Capparelli C, Tan HL, McCabe S, Elliott R, Scully S, Van G, et al. RANK is the intrinsic hematopoietic cell surface receptor that controls osteoclastogenesis and regulation of bone mass and calcium metabolism. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000;97:1566-1571.
76. Kornak U, Kasper D, Bosl MR, Kaiser E, Schweizer M, Schulz A, Friedrich W, Delling G, Jentsch TJ. Loss of the ClC-7 chloride channel leads to osteopetrosis in mice and man. Cell 2001;104:205-215.
77. Bathi RJ, Masur VN. Pyknodysostosis - a report of two cases with a brief review of the literature. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2000;29:439-442.
78. Suda T, Takahashi N, Udagawa N, Jimi E, Gillespie MT, Martin TJ. Modulation of osteoclast differentiation and function by the new members of the tumor necrosis factor receptor and ligand families. Endocr Rev 1999;20:345-357.
79. Mashiba T, Hirano T, Turner CH, Forwood MR, Johnston CC, Burr DB. Suppressed bone turnover by bisphosphonates increases microdamage accumulation and reduces some biomechanical properties in dog rib. J Bone Miner Res 2000;15:613-620.
80. Mashiba T, Turner CH, Hirano T, Forwood MR, Johnston CC, Burr DB. Effects of suppressed bone turnover by bisphosphonates on microdamage accumulation and biomechanical properties in clinically relevant skeletal sites in beagles. Bone 2001;28:524-531.
81. Burr DB, Miller L, Grynpas M, Li J, Boyde A, Mashiba T, Hirano T, Johnston CC. Tissue mineralization is increased following 1-year treatment with high doses of bisphosphonates in dogs. Bone 2003;33:960-969.
82. Mashiba T, Mori S, Burr DB, Komatsubara S, Cao Y, Manabe T, Norimatsu H. The effects of suppressed bone remodeling by bisphosphonates on microdamage accumulation and degree of mineralization in the cortical bone of dog rib. J Bone Miner Metab 2005;23(Suppl):36-42.
83. Li J, Sato M, Jerome C, Turner CH, Fan Z, Burr DB. Microdamage accumulation in the monkey vertebra does not occur when bone turnover is suppressed by 50% or less with estrogen or raloxifene. J Bone Miner Metab 2005;23(Suppl):48-54.
84. Karsdal MA, Qvist P, Christiansen C, Tanko LB. Optimising antiresorptive therapies in postmenopausal women: why do we need to give due consideration to the degree of suppression? Drugs 2006;66:1909-1918.
85. Wood J, Bonjean K, Ruetz S, Bellahcene A, Devy L, Foidart JM, Castronovo V, Green JR. Novel antiangiogenic effects of the bisphosphonate compound zoledronic acid. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2002;302:1055-1061.
86. Hellstein JW, Marek CL. Bisphosphonate osteochemonecrosis (bis-phossy jaw): is this phossy jaw of the 21st century? J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2005;63:682-689.
87. Migliorati CA, Schubert MM, Peterson DE, Seneda LM. Bisphosphonate- associated osteonecrosis of mandibular and maxillary bone: an emerging oral complication of supportive cancer therapy. Cancer 2005;104:83-93.
88. Purcell PM, Boyd IW. Bisphosphonates and osteonecrosis of the jaw. Med J Aust 2005;182:417-418.
89. Ficarra G, Beninati F, Rubino I, Vannucchi A, Longo G, Tonelli P, Pini Prato G. Osteonecrosis of the jaws in periodontal patients with a history of bisphosphonates treatment. J Clin Periodontol 2005;32:1123-1128.
90. Vannucchi AM, Ficarra G, Antonioli E, Bosi A. Osteonecrosis of the jaw associated with zoledronate therapy in a patient with multiple myeloma. Br J Haematol 2005;128:738.
91. Robinson NA, Yeo JF. Bisphosphonates - a word of caution. Ann Acad Med Singapore 2004;33(4 Suppl):48-49.
92. Ruggiero SL, Mehrotra B, Rosenberg TJ, Engroff SL. Osteonecrosis of the jaws associated with the use of bisphosphonates: a review of 63 cases. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2004;62:527-534.
93. Thomsen JS, Ebbesen EN, Mosekilde L. Predicting human vertebral bone strength by vertebral static histomorphometry. Bone 2002;30:502-508.
94. Khastgir G, Studd J, Holland N, Alaghband-Zadeh J, Fox S, Chow J. Anabolic effect of estrogen replacement on bone in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis: histomorphometric evidence in a longitudinal study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001;86:289-295.
95. Stepan JJ, Burr DB, Pavo I, Sipos A, Michalska D, Li J, Fahrleitner-Pammer A, Petto H, Westmore M, Michalsky D, et al. Low bone mineral density is associated with bone microdamage accumulation in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. Bone 2007;41:378-385.
96. Roughead EE, McGeechan K, Sayer GP. Bisphosphonate use and subsequent prescription of acid suppressants. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2004;57:813-816.
97. Barrera BA, Wilton L, Harris S, Shakir SA. Prescription-event monitoring study on 13,164 patients prescribed risedronate in primary care in England. Osteoporos Int 2005;16:1989-1998.
98. Yang YX, Lewis JD, Epstein S, Metz DC. Long-term proton pump inhibitor therapy and risk of hip fracture. JAMA 2006;296:2947-2953.
99. Rossouw JE, Prentice RL, Manson JE, Wu L, Barad D, Barnabei VM, Ko M, LaCroix AZ, Margolis KL, Stefanick ML. Postmenopausal hormone therapy and risk of cardiovascular disease by age and years since menopause. JAMA 2007;297:1465-1477.
100. Hsia J, Langer RD, Manson JE, Kuller L, Johnson KC, Hendrix SL, Pettinger M, Heckbert SR, Greep N, Crawford S, et al. Conjugated equine estrogens and coronary heart disease: the Women's Health Initiative. Arch Intern Med 2006;166:357-365.
101. Stefanick ML, Anderson GL, Margolis KL, Hendrix SL, Rodabough RJ, Paskett ED, Lane DS, Hubbell FA, Assaf AR, Sarto GE, et al. Effects of conjugated equine estrogens on breast cancer and mammography screening in postmenopausal women with hysterectomy. JAMA 2006;295:1647-1657.
102. Fournier A, Berrino F, Clavel-Chapelon F. Unequal risks for breast cancer associated with different hormone replacement therapies: results from the E3N cohort study. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2008;107:103-111.
103. Smith DC, Prentice R, Thompson DJ, Herrmann WL. Association of exogenous estrogen and endometrial carcinoma. N Engl J Med 1975;293:1164-1167.
104. Woodruff JD, Pickar JH. Incidence of endometrial hyperplasia in postmenopausal women taking conjugated estrogens (Premarin) with medroxyprogesterone acetate or conjugated estrogens alone. The Menopause Study Group. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994;170:1213-1223.
105. Sturdee DW, Wade-Evans T, Paterson ME, Thom M, Studd JW. Relations between bleeding pattern, endometrial histology, and oestrogen treatment in menopausal women. Br Med J 1978;1:1575-1577.
106. Padwick ML, Pryse-Davies J, Whitehead MI. A simple method for determining the optimal dosage of progestin in postmenopausal women receiving estrogens. N Engl J Med 1986;315:930-934.
107. Steiner AZ, Xiang M, Mack WJ, Shoupe D, Felix JC, Lobo RA, Hodis HN. Unopposed estradiol therapy in postmenopausal women: results from two randomized trials. Obstet Gynecol 2007;109:581-587.
108. Weiderpass E, Adami HO, Baron JA, Magnusson C, Bergstrom R, Lindgren A, Correia N, Persson I. Risk of endometrial cancer following estrogen replacement with and without progestins. J Natl Cancer Inst 1999;91:1131-1137.
109. Marcil M, Brooks-Wilson A, Clee SM, Roomp K, Zhang LH, Yu L, Collins JA, van Dam M, Molhuizen HO, Loubster O, et al. Mutations in the ABC1 gene in familial HDL deficiency with defective cholesterol efflux. Lancet 1999;354:1341-1346.
110. Rust S, Rosier M, Funke H, Real J, Amoura Z, Piette JC, Deleuze JF, Brewer HB, Duverger N, Denefle P, et al. Tangier disease is caused by mutations in the gene encoding ATP-binding cassette transporter 1. Nat Genet 1999;22:352-355.
111. Miyagawa K, Rosch J, Stanczyk F, Hermsmeyer K. Medroxyprogesterone interferes with ovarian steroid protection against coronary vasospasm. Nat Med 1997;3:324-327.
112. Thomas DB, Ray RM. Oral contraceptives and invasive adenocarcinomas and adenosquamous carcinomas of the uterine cervix. The World Health Organization Collaborative Study of Neoplasia and Steroid Contraceptives. Am J Epidemiol 1996;144:281-289.
113. Hellberg D, Stendahl U. The biological role of smoking, oral contraceptive use and endogenous sexual steroid hormones in invasive squamous epithelial cervical cancer. Anticancer Res 2005;25:3041-3046.
114. Hellberg D, Lindstrom AK, Stendahl U. Correlation between serum estradiol/progesterone ratio and survival length in invasive squamous cell cervical cancer. Anticancer Res 2005;25:611-616.
115. Pater A, Bayatpour M, Pater MM. Oncogenic transformation by human papillomavirus type 16 deoxyribonucleic acid in the presence of progesterone or progestins from oral contraceptives. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1990;162:1099-1103.
116. Brinton LA. Oral contraceptives and cervical neoplasia. Contraception 1991;43:581-595.
117. Martin HL, Jr., Nyange PM, Richardson BA, Lavreys L, Mandaliya K, Jackson DJ, Ndinya-Achola JO, Kreiss J. Hormonal contraception, sexually transmitted diseases, and risk of heterosexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Infect Dis 1998;178:1053-1059.
118. Clark JH. A critique of Women's Health Initiative studies (2002-2006). Nucl Recept Signal 2006;4:e023.