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Hull, R., & Vaid, J. (2007). Bilingual language lateralization: A meta-analytic tale of two hemispheres. Neuropsychologia, 45, 1987-2008. Hull and Vaid presented a meta-analysis of behavioral laterality studies and assessed effects of various variables (AoA, proficiency in L2) of L2 acquisition on language representation in the brain. The authors observed consistently similar patterns of bilateral activation for Ll as well as for L2 in infant onset bilinguals (both languages are acquired by the age 6). When L2 was learned later, that is, in childhood (ages 6-13) or adulthood (after the age 13), LH lateralization was found for both languages. The authors put forward the "anchoring hypothesis" that the functional lateralization of first language that is generated in the brain during early development anchors the organization of subsequently learned languages.
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Kim, K. H. S., Relkin, N. R., Lee, K. M., & Hirsch, J. (1997). Distinct cortical areas associated with native and second languages. Nature, 388, 171-174. Kim and colleagues studied early and late bilinguals. Of these, six had been exposed to Ll and L2 learning during infancy (the exact age of L2 acquisition, however, was not provided), and six began learning L2 after puberty. The experimental task required covert language production (discourse). The authors found Broca's area differentially activated for the two groups: overlapping activations for both languages in early learners and spatially segregated activations in late learners. Kim et al.'s conclusion was that AoA is a major factor in the cortical organization of L2 processing.
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Mechelli, A, Crinion, J. T, Noppeney, U, O'Doherty, J, Ashburner, J, Frackowiak, R. S, et al, 2004, Structural plasticity in the bilingual brain: Proficiency in a second language and age at acquisition affect grey-matter density. Nature, 431, 757. Mechelli and colleagues aimed at investigating whether the structure of the human brain is altered by the experience of acquiring an L2. Therefore, in a first study, native English bilinguals were compared to monolinguals. Voxel-based morphometry (VBM) revealed that gray-matter density in the inferior parietal cortex was greater in bilinguals (in particular, in early bilinguals) than in monolinguals. In a second study, native Italian bilinguals were examined who had learned English between ages 2 and 34. Here, VBM analysis revealed that gray-matter density in the inferior parietal cortex decreased as the AoA increased, but increased with proficiency in L2
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Mechelli, A., Crinion, J. T., Noppeney, U., O'Doherty, J., Ashburner, J., Frackowiak, R. S., et al. (2004). Structural plasticity in the bilingual brain: Proficiency in a second language and age at acquisition affect grey-matter density. Nature, 431, 757. Mechelli and colleagues aimed at investigating whether the structure of the human brain is altered by the experience of acquiring an L2. Therefore, in a first study, native English bilinguals were compared to monolinguals. Voxel-based morphometry (VBM) revealed that gray-matter density in the inferior parietal cortex was greater in bilinguals (in particular, in early bilinguals) than in monolinguals. In a second study, native Italian bilinguals were examined who had learned English between ages 2 and 34. Here, VBM analysis revealed that gray-matter density in the inferior parietal cortex decreased as the AoA increased, but increased with proficiency in L2.
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Wartenburger, I, Heekeren, H. R, Abutalebi, J, Cappa, S. F, Villringer, A, & Perani, D, 2003, Early setting of grammatical processing in the bilingual brain. Neuron, 37, 159-170. Wartenburger et al.'s study compared early (from birth up to age 6) and late bilinguals (after age 6, Italian-German) with different levels of proficiency (early high, late high, and late low-proficient bilinguals) performing a grammatical and a semantic judgment task. The comparison of activation patterns between early and late high-proficient bilinguals supports an AoA effect on cortical activations, such that the left inferior frontal gyrus activation for grammatical processing in L2 is greater than in L1. On the other hand, the effects of proficiency levels as revealed by the differences between high- and low-proficient bilinguals appeared to involve both grammatical and semantic processing
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Wartenburger, I., Heekeren, H. R., Abutalebi, J., Cappa, S. F., Villringer, A., & Perani, D. (2003). Early setting of grammatical processing in the bilingual brain. Neuron, 37, 159-170. Wartenburger et al.'s study compared early (from birth up to age 6) and late bilinguals (after age 6) (Italian-German) with different levels of proficiency (early high-, late high-, and late low-proficient bilinguals) performing a grammatical and a semantic judgment task. The comparison of activation patterns between early and late high-proficient bilinguals supports an AoA effect on cortical activations, such that the left inferior frontal gyrus activation for grammatical processing in L2 is greater than in L1. On the other hand, the effects of proficiency levels as revealed by the differences between high- and low-proficient bilinguals appeared to involve both grammatical and semantic processing.
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