Clostridium difficile infection: A critical overview

Current Infectious Disease Reports

Volumn 10, Issue 3, 2008, Pages 165-173

  Missaghi, Bayan ^b   Valenti, August J ^b   Owens Jr , Robert C ^a  

^a MAINE MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALCOHOL; ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; BACTERIAL VACCINE; BLEACHING AGENT; CLINDAMYCIN; CLOSTRIDIUM DIFFICILE VACCINE; CLOSTRIDIUM TOXIN; DISINFECTANT AGENT; HUMAN MONOCLONAL ANTIBODY; HYDROGEN PEROXIDE; HYPOCHLORITE SODIUM; MDX 066; MDX 1388; METICILLIN; METRONIDAZOLE; NATURAL PRODUCT; NITAZOXANIDE; QUATERNARY AMMONIUM DERIVATIVE; RAMOPLANIN; RIFAMPICIN; RIFAXIMIN; TIACUMICIN B; TINIDAZOLE; TOLEVAMER; TOXIN ANTIBODY; TOXOID A VACCINE; TOXOID B VACCINE; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; UNINDEXED DRUG; VANCOMYCIN;

ABDOMINAL DISCOMFORT; ABDOMINAL PAIN; ANOREXIA; ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY; BACTERIAL INFECTION; BACTERIAL STRAIN; BACTERIAL SURVIVAL; BACTERIAL TRANSMISSION; BACTERIAL VIRULENCE; BACTERIUM CULTURE; BACTERIUM DETECTION; BACTERIUM IDENTIFICATION; BACTERIUM ISOLATE; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL TRIAL; CLOSTRIDIUM DIFFICILE; COLON PERFORATION; COLONOSCOPY; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; DIAGNOSTIC ACCURACY; DISEASE SEVERITY; DISINFECTION; DRUG ABSORPTION; DRUG BIOAVAILABILITY; DRUG BLOOD LEVEL; DRUG CHOICE; DRUG DOSE ESCALATION; DRUG DOSE INCREASE; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG INDICATION; DRUG INDUCED HEADACHE; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG SAFETY; DRUG TISSUE LEVEL; DRUG TOLERABILITY; ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT; ENZYME IMMUNOASSAY; FECES ANALYSIS; HAND WASHING; HUMAN; INFECTION CONTROL; INFECTIOUS DIARRHEA; LABORATORY DIAGNOSIS; LEUKOCYTOSIS; METHICILLIN RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; MICROBIAL ACTIVITY; MINIMUM INHIBITORY CONCENTRATION; MONOTHERAPY; NAUSEA; NONHUMAN; NOTE; PASSIVE IMMUNIZATION; PERSONAL HYGIENE; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; RECOMMENDED DRUG DOSE; SINGLE DRUG DOSE; SPOROGENESIS; TASTE DISORDER; TOXIC MEGACOLON; TOXIN ANALYSIS; TREATMENT DURATION;

EID: 56349102715     PISSN: 15233847     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s11908-008-0028-5     Document Type: Note

References (55)

1. Blossom DB, McDonald LC: The challenges posed by reemerging Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis 2007, 45:222-227.
2. Owens RC Jr, Valenti AJ: Clostridium difficile-associated disease in the new millenium: "the perfect storm" has arrived. Infect Dis Clin Pract 2007, 15:299-315.
3. Bartlett JG, Onderdonk AB, Cisneros RL, Kasper DL: Commentary: Bartlett JG, Onderdonk AB, Cisneros RL, Kasper DL. Clindamycin-associated colitis due to a toxin-producing species of Clostridium in hamsters. J Infect Dis 1977; 136:701. J Infect Dis 2004, 190:202-209.
4. Bartlett JG, Moon N, Chang TW, et al.: Role of Clostridium difficile in antibiotic-associated pseudomembranous colitis. Gastroenterology 1978, 75:778-782.
5. Loo VG, Poirier L, Miller MA, et al.: A predominantly clonal multi-institutional outbreak of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea with high morbidity and mortality. N Engl J Med 2005, 353:2442-2449.
6. Gerding DN, Johnson S, Peterson LR, et al.: Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea and colitis. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1995, 16:459-477.
7. Valiquette L, Cossette B, Garant MP, et al.: Impact of a reduction in the use of high-risk antibiotics on the course of an epidemic of Clostridium difficile-associated disease caused by the hypervirulent NAP1/027 strain. Clin Infect Dis 2007, 45(Suppl 2):S112-S121.
8. Dial S, Delaney JA, Barkun AN, Suissa S: Use of gastric acid-suppressive agents and the risk of community-acquired Clostridium difficile-associated disease. JAMA 2005, 294:2989-2995.
9. Dial S, Alrasadi K, Manoukian C, et al.: Risk of Clostridium difficile diarrhea among hospital inpatients prescribed proton pump inhibitors: cohort and case-control studies. CMAJ 2004, 171:33-38.
10. Kazakova SV, Ware K, Baughman B, et al.: A hospital Outbreak of diarrhea due to an emerging epidemic strain of Clostridium difficile. Arch Intern Med 2006, 166:2518-2524.
11. McFarland LV, Beneda HW, Clarridge JE, Raugi GJ: Implications of the changing face of Clostridium difficile disease for health care practitioners. Am J Infect Control 2007, 35:237-253.
12. Johal SS, Lambert CP, Hammond J, et al.: Colonic IgA producing cells and macrophages are reduced in recurrent and non-recurrent Clostridium difficile associated diarrhoea. J Clin Pathol 2004, 57:973-979.
13. Mulligan ME, Miller SD, McFarland LV, et al.: Elevated levels of serum immunoglobulins in asymptomatic carriers of Clostridium difficile. Clin Infect Dis 1993, 16(Suppl 4): S239-S244.
14. Muto CA, Pokrywka M, Shutt K, et al.: A large outbreak of Clostridium difficile-associated disease with an unexpected proportion of deaths and colectomies at a teaching hospital following increased fluoroquinolone use. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2005, 26:273-280.
15. Johnson S, Gerding DN: Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea. Clin Infect Dis 1998, 26:1027-1034.
16. Owens RC: Clostridium difficile-associated disease: changing epidemiology and implications for management. Drugs 2007, 67:487-502.
17. Gerding DN: Clindamycin, cephalosporins, fluoroquinolones, and Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea: this is an antimicrobial resistance problem. Clin Infect Dis 2004, 38:646-648.
18. Pepin J, Saheb N, Coulombe MA, et al.: Emergence of fluoroquinolones as the predominant risk factor for Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea: a cohort study during an epidemic in Quebec. Clin Infect Dis 2005, 41:1254-1260.
19. Owens RC Jr, Donskey CJ, Gaynes RP, et al.: Antimicrobial-associated risk factors for Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis 2008, 46:519-31.
20. Dallal RM, Harbrecht BG, Boujoukas AJ, et al.: Fulminant Clostridium difficile: an underappreciated and increasing cause of death and complications. Ann Surg 2002, 235:363-372.
21. McEllistrem MC, Carman RJ, Gerding DN, et al.: A hospital outbreak of Clostridium difficile disease associated with isolates carrying binary toxin genes. Clin Infect Dis 2005, 40:265-272.
22. McDonald LC, Killgore GE, Thompson A, et al.: An epidemic, toxin gene-variant strain of Clostridium difficile. N Engl J Med 2005, 353:2433-2441.
23. Rupnik M, Kato N, Grabnar M, Kato H: New types of toxin A-negative, toxin B-positive strains among Clostridium difficile isolates from Asia. J Clin Microbiol 2003, 41:1118-1125.
24. Voth DE, Ballard JD: Clostridium difficile toxins: mechanism of action and role in disease. Clin Microbiol Rev 2005, 18:247-263.
25. Warny M, Pepin J, Fang A, et al.: Toxin production by an emerging strain of Clostridium difficile associated with outbreaks of severe disease in North America and Europe. Lancet 2005, 366:1079-1084.
26. Wilcox MH, Fawley WN: Hospital disinfectants and spore formation by Clostridium difficile. Lancet 2000 356:1324.
27. Fawley WN, Underwood S, Freeman J, et al.: Efficacy of hospital cleaning agents and germicides against epidemic Clostridium difficile strains. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2007, 28:920-925.
28. Nash SV, Bourgeault R, Sands M: Colonic disease associated with a positive assay for Clostridium difficile toxin: a retrospective study. J Clin Gastroenterol 1997, 25:476-479.
29. Nielsen ND, Layton BA, McDonald LC, et al.: Changing epidemiology of Clostridium difficile-associated disease: experience and perception of infectious diseases consultants. Infect Dis Clin Pract 2006, 14:296-302.
30. Lozniewski A, Rabaud C, Dotto E, et. al.: Laboratory diagnosis of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea and colitis: usefulness of Premier Cytoclone A+B enzyme immunoassay for combined detection of stool toxins and toxigenic C. difficile strains. J Clin Microbiol 2001, 39:1996-1998.
31. Cloud J, Kelly CP: Update on Clostridium difficile associated disease. Curr Opin Gastroenterol 2007, 23:4-9.
32. Gerding DN: New definitions will help, but cultures are critical for resolving unanswered questions about Clostridium difficile. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2007, 28:113-115.
33. Clabots CR, Gerding SJ, Olson MM, et al.: Detection of asymptomatic Clostridium difficile carriage by an alcohol shock procedure. J Clin Microbiol 1989, 27:2386-2387.
34. Gerding DN, Muto CA, Owens RC Jr: Treatment of Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis 2008, 46:S32-42.
35. Freeman J, Wilcox MH: The effects of storage conditions on viability of Clostridium difficile vegetative cells and spores and toxin activity in human faeces. J Clin Pathol 2003, 56:126-128.
36. Kamiya S, Yamakawa K, Ogura H, Nakamura S: Recovery of spores of Clostridium difficile altered by heat or alkali. J Med Microbiol 1989, 28:217-221.
37. Rutala WA, Weber DJ: Uses of inorganic hypochlorite (bleach) in health-care facilities. Clin Microbiol Rev 1997, 10:597-610.
38. Mayfield JL, Leet T, Miller J, Mundy LM: Environmental control to reduce transmission of Clostridium difficile. Clin Infect Dis 2000, 31:995-1000.
39. Carling PC, Parry MF, Von Beheren SM: Identifying opportunities to enhance environmental cleaning in 23 acute care hospitals. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2008, 29:1-7.
40. Dellit TH, Owens RC, McGowan JE Jr, et al.: Infectious Diseases Society of America and the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America guidelines for developing an institutional program to enhance antimicrobial stewardship. Clin Infect Dis 2007, 44:159-177.
41. Muto CA, Blank MK, Marsh JW, et al.: Control of an outbreak of infection with the hypervirulent Clostridium difficile BI strain in a university hospital using a comprehensive "bundle" approach. Clin Infect Dis 2007, 45:1266-1273.
42. Donskey CJ, Chowdhry TK, Hecker MT, et al.: Effect of antibiotic therapy on the density of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in the stool of colonized patients. N Engl J Med 2000, 343:1925-1932.
43. Lautenbach E, LaRosa LA, Marr AM, et al.: Changes in the prevalence of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in response to antimicrobial formulary interventions: impact of progressive restrictions on use of vancomycin and third-generation cephalosporins. Clin Infect Dis 2003, 36:440-446.
44. Zar FA, Bakkanagari SR, Moorthi KM, Davis MB: A comparison of vancomycin and metronidazole for the treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea, stratified by disease severity. Clin Infect Dis 2007, 45:302-307.
45. Fekety R, Silva J, Kauffman C, et al.: Treatment of antibiotic-associated Clostridium difficile colitis with oral vancomycin: comparison of two dosage regimens. Am J Med 1989, 86:15-19.
46. McFarland LV, Elmer GW, Surawicz CM: Breaking the cycle: treatment strategies for 163 cases of recurrent Clostridium difficile disease. Am J Gastroenterol 2002, 97:1769-1775.
47. Musher DM, Logan N, Hamill RJ, et al.: Nitazoxanide for the treatment of Clostridium difficile colitis. Clin Infect Dis 2006, 43:421-427.
48. Louie TJ: Treatment of first recurrences of Clostridium difficile-associated disease: waiting for new treatment options. Clin Infect Dis 2006, 42:765-767.
49. Hecht DW, Galang MA, Sambol SP, et al.: In vitro activities of 15 antimicrobial agents against 110 toxigenic clostridium difficile clinical isolates collected from 1983 to 2004. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2007, 51:2716-2719.
50. Surowiec D, Kuyumjian AG, Wynd MA, Cicogna CE: Past, present, and future therapies for Clostridium difficile-associated disease. Ann Pharmacother 2006, 40:2155-2163.
51. Ackermann G, Loffler B, Adler D, Rodloff AC: In vitro activity of OPT-80 against Clostridium difficile. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2004, 48:2280-2282.
52. Jodlowski TZ, Oehler R, Kam LW, Melnychuk I: Emerging therapies in the treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated disease. Ann Pharmacother 2006, 40:2164-2169.
53. Louie TJ, Peppe J, Watt CK, et al.: Tolevamer, a novel nonantibiotic polymer, compared with vancomycin in the treatment of mild to moderately severe Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea. Clin Infect Dis 2006, 43:411-420.
54. Babcock GJ, Broering TJ, Hernandez HJ, et al.: Human monoclonal antibodies directed against toxins A and B prevent Clostridium difficile-induced mortality in hamsters. Infect Immun 2006, 74:6339-6347.
55. Sougioultzis S, Kyne L, Drudy D, et al.: Clostridium difficile toxoid vaccine in recurrent C. difficile-associated diarrhea. Gastroenterology 2005, 128:764-770.