Cognitive reserve: Implications for diagnosis and prevention of Alzheimer's disease

Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports

Volumn 4, Issue 5, 2004, Pages 374-380

  Scarmeas, Nikolaos ^a   Stern, Yaakov ^a  

^a New York Presbyterian Hospital Columbia University Medical Center   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AGED; ALZHEIMER DISEASE; CLINICAL FEATURE; COGNITION; COGNITIVE DEFECT; DAILY LIFE ACTIVITY; DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING; EDUCATION; EXPERIENCE; HUMAN; INCIDENCE; INTELLECT; LIFE; OCCUPATION; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; REVIEW; RISK REDUCTION; SOCIAL ASPECT;

EID: 5444219980     PISSN: 15284042     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s11910-004-0084-7     Document Type: Review

References (100)

1. Katzman R, Terry R, DeTeresa R, et al.: Clinical, pathological, and neurochemical changes in dementia: a subgroup with preserved mental status and numerous neocortical plaques. Ann Neurol 1988, 23: 138-144.
2. Katzman R, Aronson M, Fuld P, et al.: Development of dementing illnesses in an 80-year-old volunteer cohort. Ann Neurol 1989, 25: 317-324.
3. Ince P: Pathological correlates of late-onset dementia in a multicenter community-based population in England and Wales. Lancet 2001, 357: 169-175.
4. Crystal H, Dickson D, Fuld P, et al.: Clinico-pathologic studies in dementia: nondemented subjects with pathologically confirmed Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1988, 38: 1682-1687.
5. Morris JC, Storandt M, McKeel DW Jr, et al.: Cerebral amyloid deposition and diffuse plaques in "normal" aging: Evidence for presymptomatic and very mild Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1996, 46: 707-719.
6. Mortimer JA, Snowdon DA, Markesbery WR: Head circumference, education and risk of dementia: findings from the Nun Study. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2003, 25: 671-679.
7. Stern Y: What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2002, 8: 448-460.
8. Richards M, Sacker A: Lifetime antecedents of cognitive reserve. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2003, 25: 614-624.
9. Dartigues JF, Gagnon M, Mazaux JM, et al.: Occupation during life and memory performance in nondemented French elderly community residents. Neurology 1992, 42: 1697-1701.
10. Helmer C, Letenneur L, Rouch I, et al.: Occupation during life and risk of dementia in French elderly community residents. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2001, 71: 303-309.
11. Jorm AF, Rodgers B, Henderson AS, et al.: Occupation type as a predictor of cognitive decline and dementia in old age. Age Aging 1998, 27: 477-483.
12. Anttila T, Helkala EL, Kivipelto M, et al.: Midlife income, occupation, APOE status, and dementia: a population-based study. Neurology 2002, 59: 887-893.
13. Paykel ES, Brayne C, Huppert FA, et al.: Incidence of dementia in a population older than 75 years in the United Kingdom. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1994, 51: 325-332.
14. Evans DA, Hebert LE, Beckett LA, et al.: Education and other measures of socioeconomic status and risk of incident Alzheimer disease in a defined population of older persons. Arch Neurol 1997, 54: 1399-1405.
15. Stern Y, Gurland B, Tatemichi TK, et al.: Influence of education and occupation on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease. JAMA 1994, 271: 1004-1010.
16. Bickel H, Cooper B: Incidence and relative risk of dementia in an urban elderly population: findings of a prospective field study. Psychol Med 1994, 24: 179-192.
17. Zhang X, Li C, Zhang M: Psychosocial risk factors of Alzheimer's disease. Zhonghua Yi Xue Za Zhi 1999, 79: 335-338.
18. Qiu C, Karp A, von Strauss E, et al.: Lifetime principal occupation and risk of Alzheimer's disease in the Kungsholmen project. Am J Ind Med 2003, 43: 204-211.
19. Schmand B, Smit JH, Geerlings MI, Lindeboom J: The effects of intelligence and education on the development of dementia. A test of the brain reserve hypothesis. Psychol Med 1997, 27: 1337-1344.
20. White L, Katzman R, Losonczy K, et al.: Association of education with incidence of cognitive impairment in three established populations for epidemiologic studies of the elderly. J Clin Epidemiol 1994, 47: 363-374.
21. Li G, Shen YC, Chen CH, et al.: A three-year follow-up study of age-related dementia in an urban area of Beijing. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1991, 83: 99-104.
22. Chandra V, Pandav R, Dodge HH, et al.: Incidence of Alzheimer's disease in a rural community in India: the Indo-US study. Neurology 2001, 57: 985-989.
23. Hall KS, Gao S, Unverzagt FW, Hendrie HC: Low education and childhood rural residence: risk for Alzheimer's disease in African Americans. Neurology 2000, 54: 95-99.
24. Cobb JL, Wolf PA, Au R, et al.: The effect of education on the incidence of dementia and Alzheimer's disease in the Framingham Study. Neurology 1995, 45: 1707-1712.
25. Graves AB, Larson EB, Edland SD, et al.: Prevalence of dementia and its subtypes in the Japanese American population of King County, Washington state. The Kame Project. Am J Epidemiol 1996, 144: 760-771.
26. Letenneur L, Commenges D, Dartigues JF, et al.: Incidence of dementia and Alzheimer's disease in elderly community residents of south-western France. Int J Epidemiol 1994, 23: 1256-1261.
27. Qiu C, Backman L, Winblad B, et al.: The influence of education on clinically diagnosed dementia incidence and mortality data from the Kungsholmen Project. Arch Neurol 2001, 58: 2034-2039.
28. Zhang MY, Katzman R, Salmon D, et al.: The prevalence of dementia and Alzheimer's disease in Shanghai, China: impact of age, gender, and education. Ann Neurol 1990, 27: 428-437.
29. Evans DA, Beckett LA, Albert MS, et al.: Level of education and change in cognitive function in a community population of older persons. Ann Epidemiol 1993, 3: 71-77.
30. Launer LJ, Andersen K, Dewey ME, et al.: Rates and risk factors for dementia and Alzheimer's disease: results from EURODEM pooled analyses. EURODEM Incidence Research Group and Work Groups. European Studies of Dementia. Neurology 1999, 52: 78-84.
31. Bennett DA, Wilson RS, Schneider JA, et al.: Education modifies the relation of AD pathology to level of cognitive function in older persons. Neurology 2003, 60: 1909-1915.
32. Albert MS, Jones K, Savage CR, et al.: Predictors of cognitive change in older persons: MacArthur studies of successful aging. Psychol Aging 1995, 10: 578-589.
33. Butler SM, Ashford JW, Snowdon DA: Age, education, and changes in the Mini-Mental State Exam scores of older women: findings from the Nun Study. J Am Geriatr Soc 1996, 44: 675-681.
34. Chodosh J, Reuben DB, Albert MS, Seeman TE: Predicting cognitive impairment in high-functioning community-dwelling older persons: MacArthur Studies of Successful Aging. J Am Geriatr Soc 2002, 50: 1051-1060.
35. Christensen H, Korten AE, Jorm AF, et al.: Education and decline in cognitive performance: compensatory but not protective. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1997, 12: 323-330.
36. Farmer ME, Kittner SJ, Rae DS, et al.: Education and change in cognitive function. The Epidemiologic Catchment Area Study. Ann Epidemiol 1995, 5: 1-7.
37. Snowdon DA, Ostwald SK, Kane RL: Education, survival, and independence in elderly Catholic sisters, 1936-1988. Am J Epidemiol 1989, 130: 999-1012.
38. Lyketsos CG, Chen LS, Anthony JC: Cognitive decline in adulthood: an 11.5-year follow-up of the Baltimore Epidemiologic Catchment Area Study. Am J Psychiatry 1999, 156: 58-65.
39. Colsher PL, Wallace RB: Longitudinal application of cognitive function measures in a defined population of community-dwelling elders. Ann Epidemiol 1991, 1: 215-230.
40. van Praag H, Kempermann G, Gage FH: Running increases cell proliferation and neurogenesis in the adult mouse dentate gyrus. Nat Neurosci 1999, 2: 266-270.
41. Rogers RL, Meyer JS, Mortel KF: After reaching retirement age physical activity sustains cerebral perfusion and cognition. J Am Geriatr Soc 1990, 38: 123-128.
42. Dustman RE, Ruhling RO, Russell EM, et al.: Aerobic exercise training and improved neuropsychological function of older individuals. Neurobiol Aging 1984, 5: 35-42.
43. Spirduso WW: Physical fitness, aging, and psychomotor speed: a review. J Gerontol 1980, 35: 850-865.
44. Fordyce DE, Farrar RP: Physical activity effects on hippocampal and parietal cortical cholinergic function and spatial learning in F344 rats. Behav Brain Res 1991, 43: 115-123.
45. Gomez-Pinilla F, So V, Kesslak JP: Spatial learning and physical activity contribute to the induction of fibroblast growth factor: neural substrates for increased cognition associated with exercise. Neuroscience 1998, 85: 53-61.
46. Neeper SA, Gomez-Pinilla F, Choi J, Cotman C: Exercise and brain neurotrophins. Nature 1995, 373: 109.
47. Cotman CW, Engesser-Cesar C: Exercise enhances and protects brain function. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 2002, 30: 75-79.
48. Broe GA, Creasey H, Jorm AF, et al.: Health habits and risk of cognitive impairment and dementia in old age: a prospective study on the effects of exercise, smoking and alcohol consumption. Aust N Z J Pub Health 1998, 22: 621-623.
49. Wilson RS, Mendes de Leon CF, Barnes L, et al.: Participation in cognitively stimulating activities and risk of incident alzheimer disease. JAMA 2002, 287: 742-748.
50. Wang HX, Karp A, Winblad B, Fratiglioni L: Late-life engagement in social and leisure activities is associated with a decreased risk of dementia: a longitudinal study from the Kungsholmen Project. Am J Epidemiol 2002, 155: 1081-1087.
51. Verghese J, Lipton RB, Katz MJ, et al.: leisure activities and the risk of dementia in the elderly. N Engl J Med 2003, 348: 2508-2516.
52. Carmelli D, Swan GE, LaRue A, Eslinger PJ: Correlates of change in cognitive function in survivors from the Western Collaborative Group Study. Neuroepidemiology 1997, 16: 285-295.
53. Schuit AJ, Feskens EJ, Launer LJ, Kromhout D: Physical activity and cognitive decline, the role of the apolipoprotein e4 allele. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001, 33: 772-777.
54. Dik M, Deeg DJ, Visser M, Jonker C: Early life physical activity and cognition at old age. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2003, 25: 643-653.
55. Yaffe K, Barnes D, Nevitt M, et al.: A prospective study of physical activity and cognitive decline in elderly women: women who walk. Arch Intern Med 2001, 161: 1703-1708.
56. Rogers RL, Meyer JS, Mortel KF: After reaching retirement age physical activity sustains cerebral perfusion and cognition. J Am Geriatr Soc 1990, 38: 123-128.
57. Yoshitake T, Kiyohara Y, Kato I, et al.: Incidence and risk factors of vascular dementia and Alzheimer's disease in a defined elderly Japanese population: the Hisayama Study. Neurology 1995, 45: 1161-1168.
58. Laurin D, Verreault R, Lindsay J, et al.: Physical activity and risk of cognitive impairment and dementia in elderly persons. Arch Neurol 2001, 58: 498-504.
59. Scarmeas N, Levy G, Tang M, et al.: Influence of leisure activity on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 2001, 57: 2236-2242.
60. Churchill JD, Galvez R, Colcombe S, et al.: Exercise, experience and the aging brain. Neurobiol Aging 2002, 23: 941-955.
61. Colcombe S, Kramer AF: Fitness effects on the cognitive function of older adults: a meta-analytic study. Psychol Sci 2003, 14: 125-130.
62. Scarmeas N, Stern Y: Cognitive reserve and life style. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2003, 25: 625-633.
63. Salthouse T: Theoretical Perspectives on Cognitive Aging Hillsdale, NJ: L. Erlbaum Associates; 1991.
64. Hultsch DF, Hertzog C, Small BJ, Dixon RA: Use it or lose it: engaged lifestyle as a buffer of cognitive decline in aging? Psychol Aging 1999, 14: 245-263.
65. Fabrigoule C, Letenneur L, Dartigues JF, et al.: Social and leisure activities and risk of dementia: a prospective longitudinal study. J Am Geriatr Soc 1995, 43: 485-490.
66. Helmer C, Damon D, Letenneur L, et al.: Marital status and risk of Alzheimer's disease: a French population-based cohort study. Neurology 1999, 53: 1953-1958.
67. Fratiglioni L, Wang HX, Ericsson K, et al.: Influence of social network on occurrence of dementia: a community-based longitudinal study. Lancet 2000, 355: 1315-1319.
68. Kempermann G, Gast D, Gage FH: Neuroplasticity in old age: sustained fivefold induction of hippocampal neurogenesis by long-term environmental enrichment. Ann Neurol 2002, 52: 135-143.
69. Kempermann G, Kuhn HC, Gage FH: More hippocampal neurons in adult mice living in an enriched environment. Nature 1997, 386: 493-495.
70. Katzman R: Education and the prevalence of dementia and Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1993, 43: 13-20.
71. Coffey CE, Saxton JA, Ratcliff G, et al.: Relation of education to brain size in normal aging: implications for the reserve hypothesis. Neurology 1999, 53: 189-196.
72. Coffey CE, Wilkinson WE, Parashos IA, et al.: Quantitative cerebral anatomy of the aging human brain: a cross-sectional study using magnetic resonance imaging. Neurology 1992, 42(3 Pt 1): 527-536.
73. Passe TJ, Rajagopalan P, Tupler LA, et al.: Age and sex effects on brain morphology. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 1997, 21: 1231-1237.
74. Kidron D, Black SE, Stanchev P, et al.: Quantitative MR volumetry in Alzheimer's disease. Topographic markers and the effects of sex and education. Neurology 1997, 49: 1504-1512.
75. Maguire EA, Gadian DG, Johnsrude IS, et al.: Navigation-related structural change in the hippocampi of taxi drivers. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000, 97: 4398-4403.
76. Colcombe SJ, Erickson KI, Raz N, et al.: Aerobic fitness reduces brain tissue loss in aging humans. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2003, 58: 176-180.
77. Stern Y, Alexander GE, Prohovnik I, et al.: Relationship between lifetime occupation and parietal flow: implications for a reserve against Alzheimer's disease pathology. Neurology 1995, 45: 55-60.
78. Stern Y, Alexander GE, Prohovnik I, Mayeux R: Inverse relationship between education and parietotemporal perfusion deficit in Alzheimer's disease. Ann Neurol 1992, 32: 371-375.
79. Alexander GE, Furey ML, Grady CL, et al.: Association of premorbid intellectual function with cerebral metabolism in Alzheimer's disease: implications for the cognitive reserve hypothesis. Am J Psychiatry 1997, 154: 165-172.
80. Scarmeas N, Zarahn E, Anderson KE, et al.: Association of life activities with cerebral blood flow in Alzheimer disease: implications for the cognitive reserve hypothesis. Arch Neurol 2003, 60: 359-365.
81. Gray JR, Chabris CF, Braver TS: Neural mechanisms of general fluid intelligence. Nat Neurosci 2003, 6: 316-322.
82. Stern Y, Zarahn E, Hilton HJ, et al.: Exploring the neural basis of cognitive reserve. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2003, 25: 691-701.
83. Scarmeas N, Zarahn E, Anderson KF, et al.: Cognitive reserve modulates functional brain responses during memory tasks: a PET study in healthy young and elderly subjects. Neuroimage 2003, 19: 1215-1227.
84. Scarmeas N, Zarahn E, Anderson KE, et al.: Cognitive reserve-mediated modulation of positron emission tomographic activations during memory tasks in Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 2004, 61: 73-78.
85. Friedland RP: Epidemiology, education, and the ecology of Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1993, 43: 246-249.
86. Eriksson PS, Perfilieva E, Bjork-Eriksson T, et al.: Neurogenesis in the adult human hippocampus. Nat Med 1998, 4: 1313-1317.
87. Johansson CB, Svensson M, Wallstedt L, et al.: Neural stem cells in the adult human brain. Exp Cell Res 1999, 253: 733-736.
88. Kukekov VG, Laywell ED, Suslov O, et al.: Multipotent stem/progenitor cells with similar properties arise from two neurogenic regions of adult human brain. Exp Neurol 1999, 156: 333-344.
89. Devitt N: Education, occupation, and Alzheimer's disease. JAMA 1994, 272: 1405; author reply 1406.
90. Del Ser T, Hachinski V, Merskey H, Munoz DG: An autopsy-verified study of the effect of education on degenerative dementia. Brain 1999, 122(Pt 12): 2309-2319.
91. Cohen CI: Education, occupation, and Alzheimer's disease. JAMA 1994, 272: 1405; author reply 1406.
92. van den Bree MB, Eaves LJ, Dwyer JT: Genetic and environmental influences on eating patterns of twins aged >/=50 y. Am J Clin Nutr 1999, 70: 456-465.
93. Koopmans JR, Slutske WS, Heath AC, et al.: The genetics of smoking initiation and quantity smoked in Dutch adolescent and young adult twins. Behav Genet 1999, 29: 383-393.
94. Madden PA, Heath AC, Pedersen NL, et al.: The genetics of smoking persistence in men and women: a multicultural study. Behav Genet 1999, 29: 423-431.
95. Beunen G, Thomis M: Genetic determinants of sports participation and daily physical activity. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1999, 23(Suppl 3): S55-S63.
96. Eaves L, Heath A, Martin N, et al.: Comparing the biological and cultural inheritance of personality and social attitudes in the Virginia 30,000 study of twins and their relatives. Twin Res 1999, 2: 62-80.
97. Bouchard TJ Jr, McCue M, Lykken D, Tellegen A: Intrinsic and extrinsic religiousness: genetic and environmental influences and personality correlates. Twin Res 1999, 2: 88-98.
98. Duncan GJ, Brooks-Gunn J, Klebanov PK: Economic deprivation and early childhood development. Child Dev 1994, 65(2 Spec No): 296-318.
99. Sacker A, Schoon I, Bartley M: Social inequality in educational achievement and psychosocial adjustment throughout childhood: magnitude and mechanisms. Soc Sci Med 2002, 55: 863-880.
100. McKeown T, Record RG: Relationship between childhood infections and measured intelligence. Br J Prev Soc Med 1976, 30: 101-106.