An autopsy-verified study of the effect of education on degenerative dementia

Brain

Volumn 122, Issue 12, 1999, Pages 2309-2319

  Del Ser, Teodoro ^a   Hachinski, Vladimir ^b   Merskey, Harold ^b   Munoz, David G ^b  

^a HOSPITAL SEVERO OCHOA   (Spain)

^b UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN ONTARIO   (Canada)

Author keywords

Alzheimer's disease; Cerebral infarcts; Dementia; Education; Vascular lesions

Indexed keywords

ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT; ALZHEIMER DISEASE; ARTICLE; AUTOPSY; BRAIN INFARCTION; CANADA; CEREBROVASCULAR DISEASE; COGNITION; DEMENTIA; DISEASE COURSE; EDUCATION; FEMALE; HIGH RISK POPULATION; HUMAN; LEWY BODY; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MALE; NEUROFIBRILLARY TANGLE; ONSET AGE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHOMETRY; SENILE PLAQUE;

AGE FACTORS; AGE OF ONSET; AGED; AGED, 80 AND OVER; ALZHEIMER DISEASE; ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE; BRAIN; CEREBRAL INFARCTION; COGNITION; DISEASE PROGRESSION; EDUCATIONAL STATUS; FEMALE; HUMANS; LEWY BODY DISEASE; LONGITUDINAL STUDIES; MALE; MIDDLE AGED;

EID: 0032754720     PISSN: 00068950     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/brain/122.12.2309     Document Type: Article

References (82)

1. Beard CM, Kokmen E, Offord KP, Kurland LT. Lack of association between Alzheimer's disease and education, occupation, marital status, or living arrangement. Neurology 1992; 42: 2063-8.
2. Bickel H, Cooper B. Incidence and relative risk of dementia in an urban elderly population: findings of a prospective field study. Psychol Med 1994; 24: 179-92.
3. Bonaiuto S, Rocca WA, Lippi A, Giannandrea E, Mele M, Cavarzeran F, et al. Education and occupation as risk factors for dementia: a population-based case-control study. Neuroepidemiology 1995; 14: 101-9.
4. Bowler JV, Munoz DG, Merskey H, Hachinski V. Factors affecting the age of onset and rate of progression of Alzheimer's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1998; 65: 184-90.
5. Brayne C. Clinicopathological studies of the dementias from an epidemiological viewpoint [see comments]. Br J Psychiatry 1993; 162: 439-46. Comment in: Br J Psychiatry 1993; 163: 261-2, Comment in: Br J Psychiatry 1993; 163: 415-6.
6. Brayne C. Clinicopathological studies of the dementias from an epidemiological viewpoint [see comments]. Br J Psychiatry 1993; 162: 439-46. Comment in: Br J Psychiatry 1993; 163: 261-2, Comment in: Br J Psychiatry 1993; 163: 415-6.
7. Brayne C. Clinicopathological studies of the dementias from an epidemiological viewpoint [see comments]. Br J Psychiatry 1993; 162: 439-46. Comment in: Br J Psychiatry 1993; 163: 261-2, Comment in: Br J Psychiatry 1993; 163: 415-6.
8. Breteler MM, van Swieten JC, Bots ML, Grobbee DE, Claus JJ, van den Hout JH, et al. Cerebral white matter lesions, vascular risk factors, and cognitive function in a population-based study: the Rotterdam Study. Neurology 1994; 44: 1246-52.
9. Callahan CM, Hall KS, Hui SL, Musick BS, Unverzagt FW, Hendrie HC. Relationship of age, education, and occupation with dementia among a community-based sample of African Americans. Arch Neurol 1996; 53: 134-40.
10. Canadian Study of Health and Aging. The Canadian Study of Health and Aging: risk factors for Alzheimer's disease in Canada [see comments]. Neurology 1994; 44: 2073-80. Comment in: Neurology 1995; 45: 1635.
11. Canadian Study of Health and Aging. The Canadian Study of Health and Aging: risk factors for Alzheimer's disease in Canada [see comments]. Neurology 1994; 44: 2073-80. Comment in: Neurology 1995; 45: 1635.
12. Christensen H, Korten AE, Jorm AF, Henderson AS, Jacomb PA, Rodgers B, et al. Education and decline in cognitive performance: compensatory but not protective. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1997; 12: 323-30.
13. Cobb JL, Wolf PA, Au R, White R, D'Agostino RB. The effect of education on the incidence of dementia and Alzheimer's disease in the Framingham Study. Neurology 1995; 45: 1707-12.
14. Cohen J. Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. 2nd ed. Hillsdale (NJ): Lawrence Erlbaum; 1988.
15. Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer's Disease Demographic and clinical predictors of survival in patients with Alzheimer's disease: CERAD, part XIV. Neurology 1996; 46: 656-60.
16. Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer's Disease. Cerebral infarcts in patients with autopsy-proven Alzheimer's disease: CERAD, part XVIII. Neurology 1998; 51: 159-62.
17. Crystal HA, Dickson DW, Sliwinski MJ, Lipton RB, Grober E, Marks-Nelson H, et al. Pathological markers associated with normal aging and dementia in the elderly. Ann Neurol 1993; 34: 566-73.
18. Dartigues JF, Gagnon M, Michel P, Letenneur L, Commenges D, Barberger-Gateau P, et al. Le programme de recherche PAQUID sur l'épidémiologie de la demence. Méthodes et résultats initiaux. Rev Neurol (Paris) 1991; 147: 225-30.
19. De Ronchi D, Fratiglioni L, Rucci P, Paternico A, Graziani S, Dalmonte E. The effect of education on dementia occurrence in an Italian population with middle to high socioeconomic status. Neurology 1998; 50: 1231-8.
20. Del Ser T, Munoz D, Hachinski V. Temporal pattern of cognitive decline and incontinence is different in Alzheimer's disease and diffuse Lewy body disease. Neurology 1996; 46: 682-6.
21. Dickson DW, Crystal H, Mattiace LA, Kress Y, Schwagerl A, Ksiezak-Reding H, et al. Diffuse Lewy body disease: light and electron microscopic immunocytochemistry of senile plaques. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 1989; 78: 572-84.
22. Dickson DW, Ruan D, Crystal H, Mark MH, Davies P, Kress Y, et al. Hippocampal degeneration differentiates diffuse Lewy body disease (DLBD) from Alzheimer's disease: light and electron microscopic immunocytochemistry of CA2-3 neurites specific to DLBD. Neurology 1991; 41: 1402-9.
23. Duara R, Barker WW, Lopez-Alberola R, Loewenstein DA, Grau LB, Gilchrist D, et al. Alzheimer's disease: interaction of apolipoproteinE genotype, family history of dementia, gender, education, ethnicity, and age of onset. Neurology 1996; 46: 1575-9.
24. Ebly EM, Parhad IM, Hogan DB, Fung TS. Prevalence and types of dementia in the very old: results from the Canadian Study of Health and Aging [see comments]. Neurology 1994; 44: 1593-600. Comment in: Neurology 1994; 44: 1563.
25. Ebly EM, Parhad IM, Hogan DB, Fung TS. Prevalence and types of dementia in the very old: results from the Canadian Study of Health and Aging [see comments]. Neurology 1994; 44: 1593-600. Comment in: Neurology 1994; 44: 1563.
26. Evans DA, Hebert LE, Beckett LA, Scherr PA, Albert MS, Chown MJ, et al. Education and other measures of socioeconomic status and risk of incident Alzheimer disease in a defined population of older persons. Arch Neurol 1997; 54: 1399-405.
27. Ferrucci L, Guralnik JM, Salive ME, Pahor M, Corti MC, Baroni A, et al. Cognitive impairment and risk of stroke in the older population [see comments]. J Am Geriatr Soc 1996; 44: 237-41. Comment in: J Am Geriatr Soc 1996; 44: 328-3, Comment in: J Am Geriatr Soc 1996; 44: 141011.
28. Ferrucci L, Guralnik JM, Salive ME, Pahor M, Corti MC, Baroni A, et al. Cognitive impairment and risk of stroke in the older population [see comments]. J Am Geriatr Soc 1996; 44: 237-41. Comment in: J Am Geriatr Soc 1996; 44: 328-3, Comment in: J Am Geriatr Soc 1996; 44: 141011.
29. Ferrucci L, Guralnik JM, Salive ME, Pahor M, Corti MC, Baroni A, et al. Cognitive impairment and risk of stroke in the older population [see comments]. J Am Geriatr Soc 1996; 44: 237-41. Comment in: J Am Geriatr Soc 1996; 44: 328-3, Comment in: J Am Geriatr Soc 1996; 44: 141011.
30. Filley CM, Brownell HH, Albert ML. Education provides no protection against Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1985; 35: 1781-4.
31. Folstein MF, Bassett SS, Anthony JC, Romanoski AJ, Nestadt GR. Dementia: case ascertainment in a community survey. J Gerontol 1991; 46: M132-8.
32. Fratiglioni L, Grut M, Forsell Y, Viitanen M, Grafstrom M, Holmen K, et al. Prevalence of Alzheimer's disease and other dementias in an elderly urban population: relationship with age, sex and education. Neurology 1991; 41: 1886-92.
33. Geerlings MI, Deeg DJ, Schmand B, Lindeboom J, Jonker C. Increased risk of mortality in Alzheimer's disease patients with higher education? A replication study. Neurology 1997;49:798-802.
34. Hersch EL. Development and application of the Extended Scale for Dementia. J Am Geriatr Soc 1979; 27: 348-54.
35. Hersch EL, Kral VA, Palmer RB. Clinical value of the London Psychogeriatric Rating Scale. J Am Geriatr Soc 1978; 26: 348-54.
36. Hill LR, Klauber MR, Salmon DP, Yu ES, Liu WT, Zang M, et al. Functional status, education, and the diagnosis of dementia in the Shanghai survey. Neurology 1993; 43: 138-45.
37. Jost BC, Grossberg GT. The natural history of Alzheimer's disease: a brain bank study [see comments]. J Am Geriatr Soc 1995; 43: 1248-55. Comment in: J Am Geriatr Soc 1995; 43: 1314-5, Comment in: J Am Geriatr Soc 1996; 44: 734.
38. Jost BC, Grossberg GT. The natural history of Alzheimer's disease: a brain bank study [see comments]. J Am Geriatr Soc 1995; 43: 1248-55. Comment in: J Am Geriatr Soc 1995; 43: 1314-5, Comment in: J Am Geriatr Soc 1996; 44: 734.
39. Jost BC, Grossberg GT. The natural history of Alzheimer's disease: a brain bank study [see comments]. J Am Geriatr Soc 1995; 43: 1248-55. Comment in: J Am Geriatr Soc 1995; 43: 1314-5, Comment in: J Am Geriatr Soc 1996; 44: 734.
40. Katzman R. Education and the prevalence of dementia and Alzheimer's disease. [Review]. Neurology 1993; 43: 13-20.
41. Katzman R, Kawas C. The epidemiology of dementia and Alzheimer disease. In: Terry RD, Katzman R, Bick KL, editors. Alzheimer disease. New York: Raven Press; 1994. p. 105-22.
42. Kazee AM, Eskin TA, Lapham LW, Gabriel KR, McDaniel KD, Hamill RW. Clinicopathologic correlates in Alzheimer disease: assessment of clinical and pathologic diagnostic criteria [see comments]. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 1993; 7: 152-64. Comment in Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 1993; 7: 129-35.
43. Kazee AM, Eskin TA, Lapham LW, Gabriel KR, McDaniel KD, Hamill RW. Clinicopathologic correlates in Alzheimer disease: assessment of clinical and pathologic diagnostic criteria [see comments]. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 1993; 7: 152-64. Comment in Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 1993; 7: 129-35.
44. Kokmen E, Beard CM, O'Brien PC, Kurland LT. Epidemiology of dementia in Rochester, Minnesota. Mayo Clin Proc 1996a; 71: 275-82.
45. Kokmen E, Ozsarfati Y, Beard CM, O'Brien PC, Rocca WA. Impact of referral bias on clinical and epidemiological studies of Alzheimer's disease [see comments]. J Clin Epidemiol 1996b; 49: 79-83. Comment in: J Clin Epidemiol 1997; 50: 365-6.
46. Kokmen E, Ozsarfati Y, Beard CM, O'Brien PC, Rocca WA. Impact of referral bias on clinical and epidemiological studies of Alzheimer's disease [see comments]. J Clin Epidemiol 1996b; 49: 79-83. Comment in: J Clin Epidemiol 1997; 50: 365-6.
47. Manlow A, Munoz DG. A non-toxic method for the demonstration of gliosis. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1992; 51: 298-302.
48. Merskey H, Blume WT, Colhoun EH, Fisman M, Fox AJ, Fox H, et al. Correlative studies in Alzheimer's disease. [Review]. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 1985; 9: 509-14.
49. Mirra SS, Hart MN, Terry RD. Making the diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease. A primer for practicing pathologists [see comments]. [Review]. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1993; 117: 132-44. Comment in: Arch Pathol Lab Med 1993; 117: 129-31.
50. Mirra SS, Hart MN, Terry RD. Making the diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease. A primer for practicing pathologists [see comments]. [Review]. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1993; 117: 132-44. Comment in: Arch Pathol Lab Med 1993; 117: 129-31.
51. Moritz DJ, Petitti DB. Association of education with reported age of onset and severity of Alzheimer's disease at presentation: implications for the use of clinical samples [see comments]. Am J Epidemiol 1993; 137: 456-62. Comment in: Am J Epidemiol 1996; 143: 1177.
52. Moritz DJ, Petitti DB. Association of education with reported age of onset and severity of Alzheimer's disease at presentation: implications for the use of clinical samples [see comments]. Am J Epidemiol 1993; 137: 456-62. Comment in: Am J Epidemiol 1996; 143: 1177.
53. Mortimer JA. Do psychosocial risk factors contribute to Alzheimer's disease? In: Henderson AS, Henderson JH, editors. Etiology of dementia of Alzheimer's type. Chichester: John Wiley; 1988. p. 39-52.
54. Mortimer JA, Graves AB. Education and other socioeconomic determinants of dementia and Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1993; 43 Suppl 4: S39-S44.
55. Mortimer JA, Ebbitt B, Jun SP, Finch MD. Predictors of cognitive and functional progression in patients with probable Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1992; 42: 1689-96.
56. Obadia Y, Rotily M, Degrand-Guillaud A, Guelain J, Ceccaldi M, Severo C, et al. The PREMAP Study: prevalence and risk factors of dementia and clinically diagnosed Alzheimer's disease in Provence, France. Prevalence of Alzheimer's Disease in Provence. Eur J Epidemiol 1997; 13: 247-53.
57. O'Connor DW, Pollilt PA, Treasure FP. The influence of education and social class on the diagnosis of dementia in a community population. Psychol Med 1991; 21: 219-24.
58. Orrell M, Sahakian B. Education and dementia. Research evidence supports the concept 'use it or lose it' [editorial; comment]. BMJ 1995; 310: 951-2.
59. Ott A, Breteler MM, van Harskamp F, Claus JJ, van der Cammen TJ, Grobbee DE, et al. Prevalence of Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia: association with education. The Rotterdam study [see comments]. BMJ 1995; 310: 970-3. Comment in: BMJ 1995; 310: 951-2, Comment in: BMJ 1995; 311: 125-6.
60. Ott A, Breteler MM, van Harskamp F, Claus JJ, van der Cammen TJ, Grobbee DE, et al. Prevalence of Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia: association with education. The Rotterdam study [see comments]. BMJ 1995; 310: 970-3. Comment in: BMJ 1995; 310: 951-2, Comment in: BMJ 1995; 311: 125-6.
61. Ott A, Breteler MM, van Harskamp F, Claus JJ, van der Cammen TJ, Grobbee DE, et al. Prevalence of Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia: association with education. The Rotterdam study [see comments]. BMJ 1995; 310: 970-3. Comment in: BMJ 1995; 310: 951-2, Comment in: BMJ 1995; 311: 125-6.
62. Ott A, van Rossum CTM, van Harskamp F, van de Mheen H, Hofman A, Breteler MMB. Education and the incidence of dementia in a large population-based study: the Rotterdam Study. Neurology 1999; 52: 663-6.
63. Peterson B. Re: Association of education with reported age of onset and severity of Alzheimer's disease at presentation: implications for the use of clinical samples [letter; comment]. Am J Epidemiol 1996; 143: 1177. Comment in: Am J Epidemiol 1993; 137: 456-62.
64. Peterson B. Re: Association of education with reported age of onset and severity of Alzheimer's disease at presentation: implications for the use of clinical samples [letter; comment]. Am J Epidemiol 1996; 143: 1177. Comment in: Am J Epidemiol 1993; 137: 456-62.
65. Rasmusson DX, Carson KA, Brookmeyer R, Kawas C, Brandt J. Predicting rate of cognitive decline in probable Alzheimer's disease. Brain Cogn 1996; 31: 133-47.
66. Rocca WA, Bonaiuto S, Lippi A, Luciani P, Turtu F, Cavarzeran F, et al. Prevalence of clinically diagnosed Alzheimer's disease and other dementing disorders: a door-to-door survey in Appignano, Macerata Province, Italy. Neurology 1990; 40: 626-31.
67. Skoog I, Nilsson L, Palmertz B, Andreasson LA, Svanborg A. A population-based study of dementia in 85-years-olds [see comments]. N Engl J Med 1993; 328: 153-8. Comment in: N Engl J Med 1993; 328: 203-5, Comment in: N Engl J Med 1993; 329: 63-4.
68. Skoog I, Nilsson L, Palmertz B, Andreasson LA, Svanborg A. A population-based study of dementia in 85-years-olds [see comments]. N Engl J Med 1993; 328: 153-8. Comment in: N Engl J Med 1993; 328: 203-5, Comment in: N Engl J Med 1993; 329: 63-4.
69. Skoog I, Nilsson L, Palmertz B, Andreasson LA, Svanborg A. A population-based study of dementia in 85-years-olds [see comments]. N Engl J Med 1993; 328: 153-8. Comment in: N Engl J Med 1993; 328: 203-5, Comment in: N Engl J Med 1993; 329: 63-4.
70. Snowdon DA, Ostwald SK, Kane RL. Education, survival, and independence in elderly Catholic sisters, 1936-1988. Am J Epidemiol 1989a; 130: 999-1012.
71. Snowdon DA, Ostwald SK, Kane RL, Keenan NL. Years of life with good and poor mental and physical function in the elderly. J Clin Epidemiol 1989b; 42: 1055-66.
72. Snowdon DA, Kemper SJ, Mortimer JA, Greiner LH, Wekstein DR, Markesbery WR. Linguistic ability in early life and cognitive function and Alzheimer's disease in late life. Findings from the Nun Study [see comments]. JAMA 1996; 275: 528-32. Comment in: JAMA 1996; 275: 1879.
73. Snowdon DA, Kemper SJ, Mortimer JA, Greiner LH, Wekstein DR, Markesbery WR. Linguistic ability in early life and cognitive function and Alzheimer's disease in late life. Findings from the Nun Study [see comments]. JAMA 1996; 275: 528-32. Comment in: JAMA 1996; 275: 1879.
74. Snowdon DA, Greiner LH, Mortimer JA, Riley KP, Greiner PA, Markesbery WR. Brain infarction and the clinical expression of Alzheimer disease. The Nun Study [see comments]. JAMA 1997; 277: 813-7. Comment in: JAMA 1997; 278: 113-4.
75. Snowdon DA, Greiner LH, Mortimer JA, Riley KP, Greiner PA, Markesbery WR. Brain infarction and the clinical expression of Alzheimer disease. The Nun Study [see comments]. JAMA 1997; 277: 813-7. Comment in: JAMA 1997; 278: 113-4.
76. Statistics Canada. The nation. Schooling and major field of study. Ottawa: Canadian Government Publishing Centre March; 1989.
77. Stern Y, Alexander GE, Prohovnik I, Mayeux R. Inverse relationship between education and parietotemporal perfusion deficit in Alzheimer's disease. Ann Neurol 1992; 32: 371-5.
78. Stern Y, Gurland B, Tatemichi TK, Tang MX, Wilder D, Mayeux R. Influence of education and occupation on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease [see comments]. JAMA 1994; 271: 1004-10. Comment in: JAMA 1994; 272: 1405-6.
79. Stern Y, Gurland B, Tatemichi TK, Tang MX, Wilder D, Mayeux R. Influence of education and occupation on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease [see comments]. JAMA 1994; 271: 1004-10. Comment in: JAMA 1994; 272: 1405-6.
80. Stern Y, Alexander GE, Prohovnik I, Stricks L, Link B, Lennon MC, et al. Relationship between lifetime occupation and parietal flow: implications for a reserve against Alzheimer's disease pathology. Neurology 1995a; 45: 55-60.
81. Stern Y, Tang MX, Denaro J, Mayeux R. Increased risk of mortality in Alzheimer's disease patients with more advanced educational and occupational attainment. Ann Neurol 1995b; 37: 590-5.
82. Zhang MY, Katzman R, Salmon D, Jin H, Cai GJ, Wang ZY, et al. The prevalence of dementia and Alzheimer's disease in Shanghai, China: impact of age, gender, and education. Ann Neurol 1990; 27: 428-37.