Networks, communication and learning during business start-up: The creation of cognitive social capital

International Small Business Journal

Volumn 26, Issue 5, 2008, Pages 559-594

  Lee, Robert ^a   Jones, Oswald ^a  

^a MANCHESTER METROPOLITAN UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Cognitive social capital; Critical realism; Entrepreneurial learning; Face to face and electronic communication; Human capital; Nascent entrepreneurs; Network structure

Indexed keywords

EID: 52949092399     PISSN: 02662426     EISSN: 17412870     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0266242608094030     Document Type: Article

References (132)

1. Adler, S. (2001) 'Market, Hierarchy, and Trust: The Knowledge Economy and the Future of Capitalism', Organization Science 12(2): 215-34.
2. Adler, P. and Kwon, S. (2002) 'Social Capital: Prospects for a New Concept', Academy of Management Review 27(1): 17-40.
3. Anderson, A. and Jack, S. (2002) 'The Articulation of Social Capital in Entrepreneurial Networks: A Glue or Lubricant?', Entrepreneurship and Regional Development 14(3): 193-210.
4. Anderson, A. and Miller, C. (2002) 'Class Matters: Social Capital in the Entrepreneurial Process', Journal of Socio-economics 32(1): 17-36.
5. Anderson, A., Park, J. and Jack, S. (2007) 'Entrepreneurial Social Capital: Conceptualizing Social Capital in New High-Tech Firms', International Small Business Journal 25(3): 245-72.
6. Andres, H.P. (2002) 'A Comparison of Face-to-face and Virtual Software Development Teams', Team Performance Management 8(1-2): 39-48.
7. Archer, M.S. (1995) Realist Social Theory: The Morphogenetic Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
8. Armstrong, P. (2001) 'Science, Enterprise and Profit: Ideology in the Knowledge-driven Economy', Economy and Society 30(4): 524-52.
9. Auckland, D. (2004) 'The Gestation of Nascent Entrepreneurs: Describing the SEC Experience', Engineering Management Journal 14: 46-7.
10. Baron, R.A. and Markman, G.D. (2000) 'Beyond Social Capital: How Social Skills can Enhance Entrepreneurs Success', The Academy of Management Executive 14(1): 106-16.
11. Batjargal, B. (2003) 'Social Capital and Entrepreneurial Performance in Russia: A Longitudinal Study', Organization Studies 24(4): 535-56.
12. Becker, G. (1964) Human Capital. New York: National Bureau of Economics.
13. Bernadi, L., Von der Lippe, H. and Keim, S. (2005) 'Mapping Social Influence on Fertility: A Mix-Method Approach to Data Collection', Working Paper 2005-015, Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research.
14. Bhaskar, R. (1978) A Realist Theory of Science. Hassocks: Harvester.
15. Blackburn, R. and Kovalainen,A. (2007) 'Researching Small: Firms Past, Present and Future Trends', British Academy of Management Conference, Warwick, September.
16. Blanchard, A. (2004) 'The Effects of Dispersed Virtual Communities on Face-to-Face Social Capital', in M. Huysman and W. Wulf (eds) Social Capital and Information Technology, pp. 53-75. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
17. Bowey, J.L. and Easton, G. (2007) 'Entrepreneurial Social Capital Unplugged: An Activity-Based Analysis', International Small Business Journal 25(3): 273-303.
18. Burt, R.S. (1997) 'The Contingent Value of Social Capital', Administrative Science Quarterly 42(2): 339-65.
19. Burt, R.S., Hogarth, R.M. and Michaud, C. (2000) 'The Social Capital of French and American Managers', Organization Science 11(2): 123-47.
20. Carlile, P.R. (2004) 'Transferring, Translating, and Transforming: An Integrative Framework for Managing Knowledge Across Boundaries', Organization Science 15(5): 555-68.
21. Carter, N.M., Brush, C.G., Greene, P.G., Gatewood, E. and Hart, M.M. (2003) 'Women Entrepreneurs who break through to Equity Financing: The Influence of Human, Social and Financial Capital', Venture Capital 5(1): 1-28.
22. Casson, M. and Della Giusta, M. (2007) 'Entrepreneurship and Social Capital: Analysing the Impact of Social Networks on Entrepreneurial Activity from a Rational Action Perspective', International Small Business Journal 25(3): 220-42.
23. Chattoe, E. and Hamill, H. (2005) 'It's not who you know - It's what you know about people you don't know that counts - Extending the Analysis of Crime Groups as Social Networks', British Journal of Criminology 45(6): 860-76.
24. Chewar, C.M., McCrickard, S. and Carroll, J.M. (2005) 'Analyzing the Social Capital Value Chain in Community Network Interfaces', Internet Research 15(2): 262-80.
25. Chiu, C.-M., Hsu, M.-H. and Wang, E. (2006) 'Understanding Knowledge Sharing in Virtual Communities: An Integration of Social Capital and Social Cognitive Theories', Decision Support Systems 42: 1872-88.
26. Chung, L.H. and Gibbons, P.T. (1997) 'Corporate Entrepreneurship: The Roles of Ideology and Social Capital', Group and Organization Management 22(1): 10-30.
27. Coleman, J.S. (1988) 'Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital', The American Journal of Sociology: Supplement, Organizations and Institutions: Sociological and Economic Approaches to the Analysis of Social Structure 94: S95-120.
28. Cooke, P., Clifton, N. and Oleaga, M. (2005) 'Social Capital, Firm Embeddedness and Regional Development', Regional Studies 39(8): 1065-77.
29. Cooke, P. and Wills, D. (1999) 'Small Firms, Social Capital and the Enhancement of Business Performance Through Innovation Programmes', Small Business Economics 13(3): 219-34.
30. Cope, J. (2003) 'Entrepreneurial Learning and Critical Reflection: Discontinuous Events as Triggers for Higher-level Learning', Management Learning 34(4) 429-50.
31. Cope, J. (2005) 'Toward a Dynamic Learning Perspective of Entrepreneurship', Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice 29(4): 373-97.
32. Cope, J. and Watts, G. (2000) 'Learning by Doing: An Exploration of Experience, Critical Incidents and Reflection in Entrepreneurial Learning', International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour and Research 6(3): 104-24.
33. Corbett, A.C. (2005) 'Experiential Learning within the Process of Opportunity Identification and Exploitation', Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice 29(4): 473-91.
34. Curran, J. and Blackburn, R. (2001) Researching the Small Enterprise. London: Sage.
35. Daft, R.L. and Lengel, R.H. (1986) 'Organizational Information Requirements, Media Richness and Structural Determinants', Management Science 32(9): 554-71.
36. Dakhli, M. and De Clercq, D. (2004) 'Human Capital, Social Capital, and Innovation: A Multi-country Study', Entrepreneurship and Regional Development 16(2): 107-28.
37. Davidsson, P. and Honig, B. (2003) 'The Role of Social and Human Capital among Nascent Entrepreneurs', Journal of Business Venturing 18(3): 301-31.
38. Deakins, D., Ishaq, M., Smallbone, D., Whittam, G. and Wyper, J. (2007) 'Ethnic Minority Businesses in Scotland and the Role of Social Capital', International Small Business Journal 25(3): 307-24.
39. De Carolis, D.M. and Saparito, P. (2006) 'Social Capital, Cognition, and Entrepreneurial Opportunities: A Theoretical Framework', Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice 30(1): 41-56.
40. De Clercq, D. and Arenius, P. (2006) 'The Role of Knowledge in Business Start-up Activity', International Small Business Journal 24(4): 339-58.
41. Denzin, N.K. (1994) 'The Art and Politics of Interpretation', in N. K. Denzin. and Y. S. Lincoln (eds) Handbook of Qualitative Research, pp. 500-16. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
42. DeSanctis, G. and Monge, P. (1999) 'Introduction to the Special Issue: Communication Processes for Virtual Organizations', Organization Science 10(6): 693-703.
43. Edelman, L.F., Bresnan, M., Newell, S., Scarborough, H. and Swan, J. (2004) 'The Benefits and Pitfalls of Social Capital: Empirical Evidence from Two Organizations in the United Kingdom', British Journal of Management 15(S1): 59-69.
44. Evans, W.R. and Carson, C.M. (2005) 'A Social Capital Explanation of the Relationship between Functional Diversity and Group Performance', Team Performance Management 11(7-8): 302-15.
45. Floyd, S. and Woolridge, B. (1999) 'Knowledge Creation and Social Networks in Corporate Entrepreneurship: The Renewal of Organizational Capabilities', Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice 23(3): 123-45.
46. Gargiulo, M. and Benassi, M. (2000) 'Trapped in Your Own Net?: Network Cohesion, Structural Holes, and the Adaptation of Social Capital', Organization Science 11(2): 183-96.
47. Gartner, W.B. (1985) 'A Conceptual Framework for Describing the Phenomenon of New Venture Creation', Academy of Management Review 10(4): 696-706.
48. Gibb, A. and Ritchie, J. (1982) 'Understanding the Process of Starting Small Businesses', European Small Business Journal 1(1): 26-45.
49. Glaser, B. and Strauss, A. (1967) The Discovery of Grounded Theory. Chicago, IL: Aldine.
50. Gulati,R. (1999) 'Network Location and Learning: The Influence of Network Resources and Firm Capabilities on Alliance Formation', Strategic Management Journal 20(5): 397-420.
51. Harrison, R.T. and Mason, C.M. (2007) 'Does Gender Matter? Women Business Angels and the Supply of Entrepreneurial Finance', Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice, 31(3): 443-72.
52. Harvey, M. and Evans, R. (1995) 'Strategic Windows in the Entrepreneurial Process', Journal of Business Venturing 10(5): 331-47.
53. Hatzakis, J., Lycett, M., Macredie, R.D. and Martin, V.A. (2005) 'Towards the Development of a Social Capital Approach to Evaluating Change Management', European Journal of Information Systems 14: 60-74.
54. Her Majesty's Treasury (2008) Enterprise: Unlocking the UK's Talent. HMSO: Norwich.
55. Hite, J.M. (2005) 'Evolutionary Processes and Paths of Relationally Embedded Network Ties in Emerging Entrepreneurial Firms', Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice 29(1): 113-44.
56. Hite, J. and Westerly, W.S. (2001) 'The Evolution of Firm Networks: From Emergence to Early Growth of the Firm', Strategic Management Journal 22(3): 275-86.
57. Hoang, H. and Antoncic, B. (2003) 'Network-based Research in Entrepreneurship: A Critical Review', Journal of Business Venturing 18(2): 165-87.
58. Ibarra, H., Kilduff, M. and Tsai, W. (2005) 'Zooming In and Out: Connecting Individuals and Collectivities at the Frontiers of Organizational Network Research', Organization Science 16(4): 359-71.
59. Inkpen, A.C. and Tsang, E.W.K. (2005) 'Social Capital, Networks, and Knowledge Transfer', Academy of Management Review 30(1): 146-65.
60. Jack, S. (2005) 'The Role, Use and Activation of Strong and Weak Network Ties: A Qualitative Analysis', Journal of Management Studies 42(6): 1233-60.
61. Jayawarna, D. and Rouse, J. (2006) 'The Financing of Disadvantaged Entrepreneurs: Are Enterprise Programmes Overcoming the Finance Gap?', International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour and Research 12(6): 388-400.
62. Johannisson, B., Ramirez-Pasillas, M. and Karlsson, G. (2002) 'The Institutional Embeddedness of Local Inter-firm Networks: A Leverage for Business Creation', Entrepreneurship and Regional Development 14(4): 297-315.
63. Jones, O. (2005) 'Manufacturing Regeneration through Corporate Entrepreneurship: Middle Managers and Organizational Innovation', International Journal of Operations & Production Management 25(5): 491-511.
64. Kavanaugh, A.L. and Patterson, S.J. (2001) 'The Impact of Community Networks on Social Capital and Community Involvement', The American Behavioural Scientist 45(3): 496-509.
65. Kilduff, M. and Tsai, W. (2003) Social Networks and Organizations. London: Sage.
66. Koka, B.T. and Prescott, J.E. (2002) 'Strategic Alliances As Social Capital: A Multidimensional View', Strategic Management Journal 23(9): 795-816.
67. Kolb, D.A. (1984) Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
68. Kumar, R. and Worm, V. (2003) 'Social Capital and the Dynamics of Business Negotiations between the Northern Europeans and the Chinese', International Marketing Review 20(3): 262-85.
69. Larson, A. and Starr, J.A. (1993) 'A Network Model of Organization Formation', Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice 17(2): 5-16.
70. Lechner, C. and Dowling, M. (2003) 'Firm Networks: External Relations as Sources for the Growth and Competitiveness of Entrepreneurial Firms', Entrepreneurship and Regional Development 15(1): 1-26.
71. Lee, A.S. (1994) 'Electronic Mail as a Medium for Rich Communication: An Empirical Investigation using Hermeneutic Interpretation', MIS Quarterly 18(2): 143-57.
72. Leung, A., Zhang, J., Wong, P.K. and Foo, M.D. (2006) 'The Use of Networks in Human Resource Acquisitions for Entrepreneurial Firms: Multiple Fit Considerations', Journal of Business Venturing 21(5): 664-85.
73. Levin, D.Z. and Cross, R. (2004) 'The Strength of Weak Ties You Can Trust: The Mediating Role of Trust in Effective Knowledge Transfer', Management Science 50(11): 1477-90.
74. Liao, J. and Welsch, H. (2005) 'Roles of Social Capital in Venture Creation: Key Dimensions and Research Implications', Journal of Small Business Management 43(4): 345-62.
75. Lin, N. (2000) 'Inequality in Social Capital', Contemporary Sociology 29(6): 785-95.
76. Lumpkin, G.T., Hills, G. and Shrader, R. (2004) 'Opportunity Recognition', in P. H. Welsch (eds) Entrepreneurship: The Way Ahead, pp. 73-90. New York: Routledge.
77. McLoughlin, D. and Easton, G. (2004) 'The Quiet Market: A Critical Realist Account of C2C Exchange in the West of Ireland', Advances in Consumer Research 31: 735-9.
78. Macpherson, A., Jones, O. and Zhang, M. (2005) 'Virtual Reality and Innovation Networks: Opportunity Exploitation in Dynamic SMEs', International Journal of Technology Management 30 (1-2): 1-2.
79. Markus, M.L. (1994) 'Electronic Mail as the Medium of Managerial Choice', Organizational Science 5(4): 502-27.
80. Martinez, A., Dimitriadis, Y., Rubia, B., Gomez, P. and De la Fuente, P. (2003) 'Combining Qualitative Evaluation and Social Network Analysis for the Study of Classroom Social Interactions', Computers & Education 41(4): 353-68.
81. Maula, M., Autio, E. and Murray, G. (2003) 'Prerequisites for the Creation of Social Capital and Subsequent Knowledge Acquisition in Corporate Venture Capital', Venture Capital 5(2): 117-34.
82. Nahapiet, J. and Ghoshal, S. (1998) 'Social Capital, Intellectual Capital, and the Organizational Advantage', The Academy of Management Review 23(2): 242-66.
83. Narayan, D. (1999) 'Bonds and Bridges: Social Capital and Poverty', Policy Research Working Paper 2167. Washington, DC: World Bank, Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Network.
84. Neergaard, H., Shaw, E. and Carter, S. (2005) 'The Impact of Gender, Social Capital and Networks on Business Ownership: A Research Agenda', International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour and Research 11(5): 338-57.
85. Newell, S., Tansley, C. and Huang, J. (2004) 'Social Capital and Knowledge Integration in an ERP Project Team: The Importance of Bridging AND Bonding', British Journal of Management 15(S1): 43-7.
86. Ngwenyama, O.K. and Lee, A.S. (1997) 'Communication Richness in Electronic Mail: Critical Social Theory and the Contextuality of Meaning', MIS Quarterly 21(2): 145-67.
87. Nofsinger, R.E. (1991) Everyday Conversation. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
88. O'Brien, D.J., Phillips, J.L. and Patsiorkovsky, V. (2005) 'Linking Indigenous Bonding and Bridging Social Capital', Regional Studies 39(8): 1041-51.
89. Packalen, K.A. (2007) 'Complementing Capital: The Role of Status, Demographic Features and Social Capital in Founding Teams' Abilities to Obtain Resources', Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice 31(6): 873-91.
90. Pallant, J. (2005) SPSS Survival Manual Second Edition. Buckingham: Open University Press.
91. Petersen, B., Lawrence, S. and Liesch, P.W. (2002) 'The Internet and Foreign Market Expansion by Firms', Management International Review 42(2): 207-21.
92. Pickens, J.M. (2003) 'Formal and Informal Social Networks of Women with Serious Mental Illness', Issues in Mental Health Nursing 24(2): 109-27.
93. Podolny, J.M. and Baron, J.N. (1997) 'Resources and Relationships: Social Networks and Mobility in the Workplace', American Sociological Review 62(5): 673-93.
94. Politis, D. (2005) 'The Process of Entrepreneurial Learning: A Conceptual Framework', Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice 29(4): 399-424.
95. Putnam, R.D. (1995) 'Bowling Alone: America's Declining Social Capital', Journal of Democracy 6(1): 65-78.
96. Putnam, R.D. (2000) Bowling Alone. New York: Simon & Schore.
97. Rae, D. (2005) 'Entrepreneurial Learning: ANarrative-Based Conceptual Model', International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour and Research 12(3): 323-35.
98. Rae, D. and Carswell, M. (2000) 'Using a Life-Story Approach in Researching Entrepreneurial Learning: The Development of a Conceptual Model and its Implications in the Design of Learning Experiences', Education & Training 42(4-5): 220-7.
99. Ragin, C.C. (1994) Constructing Social Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.
100. Reagans, R. and Zuckerman, E.W. (2001) 'Networks, Diversity, and Productivity: The Social Capital of Corporate R & D Teams', Organization Science 12(4): 502-17.
101. Reveley, J., Down, S. and Taylor, S. (2004) 'Beyond the Boundaries: An Ethnographic Analysis of Spatially Diffuse Control in a Small Firm', International Small Business Journal 22(4): 349-67.
102. Rosenfarb, I. (1992) 'A Behaviour Analytic Interpretation of the Therapeutic Relationship', The Psychological Record 42(3): 341-54.
103. Rottman, J.W. (2008) 'Successful Knowledge Transfer Within Offshore Supplier Networks: A Case Study Exploring Social Capital in Strategic Alliances', Journal of Information Technology 23(1): 31-44.
104. Rubin, H.J. and Rubin, I.S. (1995) Qualitative Interviewing: The Art of Hearing Data. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
105. Sayer, A. (2000) Realism and Social Science. London: Sage.
106. Schein, E.H. (1987) 'Individuals and Careers', in J.W. Lorsch (eds) Handbook of Organizational Behavior, pp. 155-71. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
107. Sequeira, J. and Rasheed, A. (2006) 'Start-up and Growth of Immigrant Small Businesses: The Impact of Social and Human Capital', Journal of Development Entrepreneurship 11(4): 357-76.
108. Shane, S. (2000) 'Prior Knowledge and the Discovery of Entreprneeurial Opportunties', Organization Science 11(4): 448-69.
109. Shaw, E. (2006) 'Small Firm Networking: An Insight into Contents and Motivating Factors', International Small Business Journal 24(1): 5-31.
110. Spence, L. and Schmidpeter, R. (2003) 'SMEs, Social Capital and the Common Good', Journal of Business Ethics 45(1): 93-108.
111. Spence, L., Schmidpeter, R. and Habisch, A. (2003) 'Assessing Social Capital: Small and Medium Sized Enterprises in Germany and the U.K', Journal of Business Ethics 47(1): 17-29.
112. Strauss, A. and Corbin, J. (1990) Basics of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
113. Suarez-Villa, L. (1998) 'The Structures of Cooperation: Downscaling, Outsourcing and the Networked Alliance', Small Business Economics 10(1): 5-16.
114. Svendsen, G.L.H. (2006) 'Studying Social Capital in situ: A Qualitative Approach', Theory and Society 35(1): 39-70.
115. Svendsen, G.L.H. and Svendsen, G.T. (2003) The Creation and Destruction of Social Capital: Entrepreneurship, Co-operative Movements and Institutions. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
116. Taylor, D.W., Jones, O. and Boles, K. (2004) 'Building Social Capital through Action Learning: An Insight into the Entrepreneur', Education and Training 46(5): 226-35.
117. Tilly, C. (1984) Big Structures, Large Processes, Huge Comparisons. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
118. Totterman, H. and Sten, J. (2005) 'Start-ups, Business Incubation and Social Capital', International Small Business Journal 23(5): 487-511.
119. Trevino, L.K., Webster, J. and Stein, E.W. (2000) 'Making Connections: Complementary Influences on Communication Media Choices, Attitudes and Use', Organization Science 11(2): 163-82.
120. Tsai, W. (2000) 'Social Capital, Strategic Relatedness and the Formation of Interorganizational Linkages', Strategic Management Journal 21(9): 925-39.
121. Tsai, W. and Ghoshal, S. (1998) 'Social Capital and Value Creation: The Role of Intrafirm Networks', The Academy of Management Journal 41(4): 464-76.
122. Uzzi, B. (1999) 'Embeddedness in the Making of Financial Capital: How Social Relations and Networks Benefit Firms Seeking Financing', American Sociological Review 64(4): 481-505.
123. Walker, G. Kogut, B. and Shan, W. (1997) 'Social Capital, Structural Holes, and the Formation of an Industry Network', Organization Science 8(2): 109-125.
124. Wellman, B., Quan Haase, A., Witte, J. and Hampton, K. (2001) 'Does the Internet Increase, Decrease, or Supplement Social Capital?', The American Behavioural Scientist 45(3): 436-55.
125. Woolcock, M. (1998) 'Social Capital and Economic Development: Toward a Theoretical Synthesis and Policy Framework', Theory & Society 27(2): 151-208.
126. Woolcock, M. and Narayan, D. (2000) 'Social Capital: Implications for Development Theory, Research, and Policy', The World Bank Research Observer 15(2): 225-49.
127. Xiao, Z. and Tsui, A.S. (2007) 'When Brokers May Not Work: The Cultural Contingency of Social Capital in Chinese High-tech Firms', Administrative Science Quarterly 52(1): 1-31.
128. Yates, J. and Orlikowski, W.J. (1992) 'Genres of Organizational Communication: A Structurational Approach to Studying Communication and Media', The Academy of Management Review 17(2): 299-326.
129. Yates, J., Orlikowski, W.J. and Okamura, K. (1999) 'Explicit and Implicit Structuring of Genres in Electronic Communication: Reinforcement and Change of Social Interaction', Organization Science 10(1): 83-103.
130. Yli-Renko, H. and Autio, E. (1998) 'The Network Embeddedness of New Technology-Based Firms: Developing A Systematic Evolution Model', Small Business Economics 11(6-7): 253-67.
131. Yli-Renko, H., Autio, E. and Sapienza, H. (2001) 'Social Capital, Knowledge Acquisition and Knowledge Exploitation in Young Technology-Based Firms', Strategic Management Journal 16(6-7): 587-613.
132. Zack, M.H. (1993) 'Interactivity and Communication Mode Choice in Ongoing Management Groups', Information Systems Research 1: 440-57.