Endocrine and metabolic manifestations of invasive fungal infections and systemic antifungal treatment

Mayo Clinic Proceedings

Volumn 83, Issue 9, 2008, Pages 1046-1060

  Lionakis, Michail S ^a   Samonis, George ^b   Kontoyiannis, Dimitrios P ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS MD ANDERSON CANCER CENTER   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL OF HERAKLION   (Greece)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMILORIDE; AMPHOTERICIN B; ANTIDIABETIC AGENT; BUDESONIDE; CASPOFUNGIN; ECHINOCANDIN; FLUCONAZOLE; GLIMEPIRIDE; ITRACONAZOLE; KETOCONAZOLE; NATEGLINIDE; NYSTATIN; ORAL CONTRACEPTIVE AGENT; POTASSIUM IODIDE; SPIRONOLACTONE; TOLBUTAMIDE; VORICONAZOLE; ZEARALENONE; ZERANOL;

ADRENAL INSUFFICIENCY; ADRENAL TUMOR; CANDIDIASIS; CUSHING DISEASE; CUSHING SYNDROME; DIABETES MELLITUS; DRUG DOSE COMPARISON; DRUG INHIBITION; EDEMA; HEART VENTRICLE FIBRILLATION; HUMAN; HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA; HYPERKALEMIA; HYPERTENSION; HYPERTRIGLYCERIDEMIA; HYPOGLYCEMIA; HYPOKALEMIA; HYPOMAGNESEMIA; HYPOPHYSIS DISEASE; HYPOTHYROIDISM; LIPID METABOLISM; MYCOSIS; OVARY POLYCYSTIC DISEASE; PROSTATE CANCER; REVIEW; RHABDOMYOLYSIS; SPOROTRICHOSIS; THYROIDITIS; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

EID: 51349160997     PISSN: 00256196     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.4065/83.9.1046     Document Type: Review

References (213)

1. Mielke B, Weir B, Oldring D, von Westarp C. Fungal aneurysm: case report and review of the literature. Neurosurgery. 1981;9(5):578-582.
2. Breuel KF, Kougias P, Rice PJ, et al. Anterior pituitary cells express pattern recognition receptors for fungal glucans: implications for neuroendocrine immune involvement in response to fungal infections. Neuroimmunomodulation. 2004;11(1):1-9.
3. Dubey A, Patwardhan RV, Sampth S, Santosh V, Kolluri S, Nanda A. Intracranial fungal granuloma: analysis of 40 patients and review of the literature. Surg Neurol. 2005;63(3):254-260.
4. Pinzer T, Reiss M, Bourquain H, Krishnan KG, Schackert G. Primary aspergillosis of the sphenoid sinus with pituitary invasion - a rare differential diagnosis of sellar lesions. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 2006;148(10):1085-1090.
5. Yeung IY, Whitelaw BC, Hortobágyi T, et al. Phaeohyphomycosis: an unusual pituitary mass. Br J Neurosurg. 2005;19(5):442-445.
6. Heary RF, Maniker AH, Wolansky LJ. Candidal pituitary abscess: case report. Neurosurgery. 1995;36(5):1009-1012.
7. Yu YQ, Jiang XX, Gao YJ. MRI of a pituitary cryptococcoma simulating an adenoma. Neuroradiology. 1995;37(6):449-450.
8. Scanarini M, Rotilio A, Rigobello L, Pomes A, Parenti A, Alessio L. Primary intrasellar coccidioidomycosis simulating a pituitary adenoma. Neurosurgery. 1991;28(5):748-751.
9. Murray HW, Littman ML, Roberts RB. Disseminated paracoccidioidomycosis (South American blastomycosis) in the United States. Am J Med. 1974;56(2):209-220.
10. Bartlett JA, Hulette C. Central nervous system pneumocystosis in a patient with AIDS. Clin Infect Dis. 1997;25(1):82-85.
11. Stalldecker G, Molina HA, Antelo N, Arakaki T, Sica RE, Basso A. Hypopituitarism caused by colonic carcinoma metastasis associated with hypophysial aspergillosis [in Spanish]. Medicina (B Aires). 1994;54(3):248-252.
12. Aron DC. Endocrine complications of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Arch Intern Med. 1989;149(2):330-333.
13. Parker KM, Nicholson JK, Cezayirli RC, Biggs PJ. Aspergillosis of the sphenoid sinus: presentation as a pituitary mass and postoperative gallium-67 imaging. Surg Neurol. 1996;45(4):354-358.
14. Juffermans NP, Verbon A, Van der Poll T. Diabetes insipidus as a complication of cryptococcal meningitis in an HIV-infected patient. Scand J Infect Dis. 2002;34(5):397-398.
15. Ryan M, Yeo S, Maguire A, et al. Rhinocerebral zygomycosis in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. Eur J Pediatr. 2001;160(4):235-238.
16. Kelly PM. Systemic blastomycosis with associated diabetes insipidus. Ann Intern Med. 1982;96(1):66-67.
17. Stockstill MT, Kauffman CA. Comparison of cryptococcal and tuberculous meningitis. Arch Neurol. 1983;40(2):81-85.
18. Webb M, Ziauddin A, Okusa MD. Coccidioidomycosis meningitis and syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone. Am J Med Sci. 2002;324(3):155-157.
19. Tang WW, Kaptein EM, Feinstein EI, Massry SG. Hyponatremia in hospitalized patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and the AIDS-related complex. Am J Med. 1993;94(2):169-174.
20. Kim SW, Yeum CH, Kim S, Oh Y, Choi KC, Lee J. Amphotericin B decreases adenylyl cyclase activity and aquaporin-2 expression in rat kidney. J Lab Clin Med. 2001;138(4):243-249.
21. Späth-Schwalbe E, Koschuth A, Dietzmann A, Schanz J, Possinger K. Successful use of liposomal amphotericin B in a case of amphotericin B-induced nephrogenic diabetes insipidus. Clin Infect Dis. 1999;28(3):680-681.
22. Höhler T, Teuber G, Wanitschke R, Meyer zum Büschenfeld KH. Indomethacin treatment in amphotericin B induced nephrogenic diabetes insipidus. Clin Investig. 1994;72(10):769-771.
23. Varlam DE, Siddiq MM, Parton LA, Rüssmann H. Apoptosis contributes to amphotericin B-induced nephrotoxicity. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2001;45(3):679-685.
24. Kirchlechner V, Koller DY, Seidl R, Waldhauser F. Treatment of nephrogenic diabetes insipidus with hydrochlorothiazide and amiloride. Arch Dis Child. 1999;80(6):548-552.
25. Berger SA, Zonszein J, Villamena P, Mittman N. Infectious diseases of the thyroid gland. Rev Infect Dis. 1983;5(1):108-122.
26. Goldani LZ, Zavascki AP, Maia AL. Fungal thyroiditis: an overview. Mycopathologia. 2006;161(3):129-139.
27. Yu EH, Ko WC, Chuang YC, Wu TJ. Suppurative Acinetobacter baumanii thyroiditis with bacteremic pneumonia: case report and review. Clin Infect Dis. 1998;27(5):1286-1290.
28. Sion ML, Armenaka MC, Georgiadis I, Paraskevopoulos G, Nikolaidis I. Aspergillus fumigatus abscesses of the thyroid with obstruction of the esophagus. Thyroid. 2004;14(9):786-788.
29. Winzelberg GG, Gore J, Yu D, Vagenakis AG, Braverman LE. Aspergillus flavus as a cause of thyroiditis in an immunosuppressed host. Johns Hopkins Med J. 1979;144(3):90-93.
30. Kalina PH, Campbell RJ. Aspergillus terreus endophthalmitis in a patient with chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Arch Ophthalmol. 1991;109(1):102-103.
31. Iwen PC, Rupp ME, Bishop MR, et al. Disseminated aspergillosis caused by Aspergillus ustus in a patient following allogeneic peripheral stem cell transplantation. J Clin Microbiol. 1998;36(12):3713-3717.
32. Mori T, Egashira M, Kawamata N, et al. Zygomycosis: two case reports and review of reported cases in the literature in Japan [in Japanese]. Nippon Ishinkin Gakkai Zasshi. 2003;44(3):163-179.
33. Riddell J IV, Chenoweth CE, Kauffman CA. Disseminated Scedosporium apiospermum infection in a previously healthy woman with HELLP syndrome. Mycoses. 2004;47(9-10):442-446.
34. Berenguer J, Rodríguez-Tudela JL, Richard C, et al. Deep infections caused by Scedosporium prolificans: a report on 16 cases in Spain and a review of the literature. Medicine (Baltimore). 1997;76(4):256-265.
35. Wuyts WA, Molzahn H, Maertens J, et al. Fatal Scopulariopsis infection in a lung transplant recipient: a case report. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2005 Dec;24(12):2301-2304. Epub 2005 Sep 28.
36. Gandhi RT, Tollin SR, Seely EW. Diagnosis of Candida thyroiditis by fine needle aspiration. J Infect. 1994;28(1):77-81.
37. Avram AM, Sturm CA, Michael CW, Sisson JC, Jaffe CA. Cryptococcal thyroiditis and hyperthyroidism. Thyroid. 2004;14(6):471-474.
38. Goldani LZ, Klock C, Diehl A, Monteiro AC, Maia AL. Histoplasmosis of the thyroid. J Clin Microbiol. 2000;38(10):3890-3891.
39. Babu A, Lacuesta E, Patel S. Cervical blastomycosis masquerading as a thyroid mass. Endocr Pract. 2005;11(1):65-68.
40. Smilack JD, Argueta R. Coccidioidal infection of the thyroid. Arch Intern Med. 1998;158(1):89-92.
41. Ito T, Ishikawa Y, Fujii R, et al. Disseminated Trichosporon capitatum infection in a patient with acute leukemia. Cancer. 1988;61(3):585-588.
42. Gold JW, Poston W, Mertelsmann R, et al. Systemic infection with Trichosporon cutaneum in a patient with acute leukemia: report of a case. Cancer. 1981;48(10):2163-2167.
43. Koyanagi T, Nishida N, Osabe S et al. Autopsy case of disseminated Trichosporon inkin infection identified with molecular biological and biochemical methods. Pathol Int. 2006;56(12):738-743.
44. Guttler R, Singer PA, Axline SG, Greaves TS, McGill JJ. Pneumocystis carinii thyroiditis: report of three cases and review of the literature. Arch Intern Med. 1993;153(3):393-396.
45. Bodey G, Bueltmann B, Duguid W, et al. Fungal infections in cancer patients: an international autopsy survey. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1992;11(2):99-109.
46. Groll AH, Shah PM, Mentzel C, Schneider M, Just-Nuebling G, Huebner K. Trends in the postmortem epidemiology of invasive fungal infections at a university hospital. J Infect. 1996;33(1):23-32.
47. Antinori S, Galimberti L, Magni C, et al. Cryptococcus neoformans infection in a cohort of Italian AIDS patients: natural history, early prognostic parameters, and autopsy findings. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2001;20(10):711-717.
48. Ng VL, Yajko DM, Hadley WK. Extrapulmonary pneumocystosis. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1997;10(3):401-418.
49. Huntington RW, Waldmann WJ, Sargent JA, O'Connell H, Wybel R, Croll D. Pathological and clinical observations on 142 cases of fatal coccidioidomycosis with necropsy. In: Ajella L, ed. Coccidioidomycosis. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press;1967:143-167.
50. Kishi Y, Negishi M, Kami M, et al. Fatal airway obstruction caused by invasive aspergillosis of the thyroid gland. Leuk Lymphoma. 2002;43(3):669-671.
51. Kiy Y, Machado JM, Mendes RP, Barraviera B, Pereira PC, Cury PR. Paracoccidioidomycosis in the region of Botucatu (state of São Paulo, Brazil): evaluation of serum thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) levels and of the response to thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH). Mycopathologia. 1988;103(1):3-9.
52. Brent GA, Hershman JM. Thyroxine therapy in patients with severe nonthyroidal illnesses and low serum thyroxine concentration. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1986;63(1):1-8.
53. Fried JC, LoPresti JS, Micon M, Bauer M, Tuchschmidt JA, Nicoloff JT. Serum triiodothyronine values: prognostic indicators of acute mortality due to Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia associated with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Arch Intern Med. 1990;150(2):406-409.
54. Selmanoglu G, Kockaya EA. Investigation of the effects of patulin on thyroid and testis, and hormone levels in growing male rats. Food Chem Toxicol. 2004;42(5):721-727.
55. Rotter BA, Thompson BK, Lessard M, Trenholm HL, Tryphonas H. Influence of low-level exposure to Fusarium mycotoxins on selected immunological and hematological parameters in young swine. Fundam Appl Toxicol. 1994;23(1):117-124.
56. Comby F, Lagorce JF, Buxeraud J, Raby C. Antithyroid action of ketoconazole: in-vitro studies and rat in-vivo studies. J Pharm Pharmacol. 1994;46(1):50-53.
57. De Pedrini P, Montemurro G, Tommaselli A, Costa C. No effect of ketoconazole on thyroid function of normals and thyrotoxic patients. Int J Tissue React. 1988;10(3):189-192.
58. De Pedrini P, Tommaselli A, Montemurro G. No effect of ketoconazole on thyroid function of normal subjects and hypothyroid patients. Int J Clin Pharmacol Res. 1988;8(6):485-488.
59. Namer M, Khater R, Frenay M, Boublil JL. High-dose ketoconazole in the treatment of advanced cancer of the breast [in French] [letter]. Bull Cancer. 1986;73(1):89.
60. Kitching NH. Hypothyroidism after treatment with ketoconazole [letter]. Br Med J. 1986;293(6553):993-994.
61. Devenport MH, Crook D, Wynn V, Lees LJ. Metabolic effects of low-dose fluconazole in healthy female users and non-users of oral contraceptives. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1989;27(6):851-859.
62. Sterling JB, Heymann WR. Potassium iodide in dermatology: a 19th century drug for the 21st century - uses, pharmacology, adverse effects, and contraindications. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2000;43(4):691-697.
63. Barbour GL, Coburn JW, Slatopolsky E, Norman AW, Horst RL. Hypercalcemia in an anephric patient with sarcoidosis: evidence for extrarenal generation of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D. N Engl J Med. 1981;305(8):440-443.
64. Adams JS, Sharma OP, Gacad MA, Singer FR. Metabolism of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 by cultured pulmonary alveolar macrophages in sarcoidosis. J Clin Invest. 1983;72(5):1856-1860.
65. Spindel SJ, Hamill RJ, Georghiou PR, Lacke CE, Green LK, Mallette LE. Case report: vitamin D-mediated hypercalcemia in fungal infections. Am J Med Sci. 1995;310(2):71-76.
66. Kantarjian HM, Saad MF, Estey EH, Sellin RV, Samaan NA. Hypercalcemia in disseminated candidiasis. Am J Med. 1983;74(4):721-724.
67. Ali MY, Gopal KV, Llerena LA, Taylor HC. Hypercalcemia associated with infection by Cryptococcus neoformans and Coccidioides immitis. Am J Med Sci. 1999;318(6):419-423.
68. Caldwell JW, Arsura EL, Kilgore WB, Reddy CM, Johnson RH. Hypercalcemia in patients with disseminated coccidioidomycosis. Am J Med Sci. 2004;327(1):15-18.
69. Silva LC, Ferrari TC. Hypercalcaemia and paracoccidioidomycosis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1998;92(2):187.
70. Ahmed B, Jaspan JB. Case report: hypercalcemia in a patient with AIDS and Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Am J Med Sci. 1993;306(5):313-316.
71. Stewart AF, Horst R, Deftos LJ, Cadman EC, Lang R, Broadus AE. Biochemical evaluation of patients with cancer-associated hypercalcemia: evidence for humoral and nonhumoral groups. N Engl J Med. 1980;303(24):1377-1383.
72. Jenny-Avital ER, Abadi M. Immune reconstitution cryptococcosis after initiation of successful highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2002 Dec 15;35(12):e128-e133. Epub 2002 Nov 20.
73. Lawn SD, Macallan DC. Hypercalcemia: a manifestation of immune reconstitution complicating tuberculosis in an HIV-infected person [letter]. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;38(1):154-155.
74. Reinholt FP, Hultenby K, Oldberg A, Heinegård D. Osteopontin - a possible anchor of osteoclasts to bone. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1990;87(12):4473-4475.
75. Carlson I, Tognazzi K, Manseau EJ, Dvorak HF, Brown LF. Osteopontin is strongly expressed by histiocytes in granulomas of diverse etiology. Lab Invest. 1997;77(1):103-108.
76. Li J, Sarosi I, Yan XQ, et al. RANK is the intrinsic hematopoietic cell surface receptor that controls osteoclastogenesis and regulation of bone mass and calcium metabolism. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2000;97(4):1566-1571.
77. Siddiqi A, Goh BT, Brown CL, Hillman RJ, Monson JP. Hypothyroidism and hypoparathyroidism associated with Pneumocystis carinii infection in a patient with AIDS. Int J STD AIDS. 1998;9(2):108-110.
78. Sonino N. The endocrine effects of ketoconazole. J Endocrinol Invest. 1986;9(4):341-347.
79. Henry HL. Effect of ketoconazole and miconazole on 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 metabolism by cultured chick kidney cells. J Steroid Biochem. 1985;23(6A):991-994.
80. Glass AR, Eil C. Ketoconazole-induced reduction in serum 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D and total serum calcium in hypercalcemic patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1988;66(5):934-938.
81. Saggese G, Bertelloni S, Baroncelli GI, Di Nero G. Ketoconazole decreases the serum ionized calcium and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D levels in tuberculosis-associated hypercalcemia. Am J Dis Child. 1993;147(3):270-273.
82. Adams JS, Sharma OP, Diz MM, Endres DB. Ketoconazole decreases the serum 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D and calcium concentration in sarcoidosis-associated hypercalcemia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1990;70(4):1090-1095.
83. Marcus N, Garty BZ. Transient hypoparathyroidism due to amphotericin B-induced hypomagnesemia in a patient with beta-thalassemia. Ann Pharmacother. 2001;35(9):1042-1044.
84. Offner F, Krcmery V, Boogaerts M, et al; EORTC Invasive Fungal Infections Group. Liposomal nystatin in patients with invasive aspergillosis refractory to or intolerant of amphotericin B. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2004;48(12):4808-4812.
85. Maertens J, Raad I, Petrikkos G, et al; Caspofungin Salvage Aspergillosis Study Group. Efficacy and safety of caspofungin for treatment of invasive aspergillosis in patients refractory to or intolerant of conventional antifungal therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2004 Dec 1;39(11):1563-1571. Epub 2004 Nov 9.
86. Jain A, Butani L. Severe hyperphosphatemia resulting from high-dose liposomal amphotericin in a child with leukemia. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2003;25(4):324-326.
87. Mendoza D, Connors S, Lane C, Stehnach S. Liposomal amphotericin B as a cause of pseudohyperphosphatemia [letter]. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;46(4):645-646.
88. Guice KS, Lynch M, Weatherbee L. Invasive aspergillosis: an unusual cause of hemorrhagic pancreatitis. Am J Gastroenterol. 1987;82(6):563-565.
89. Parenti DM, Steinberg W, Kang P. Infectious causes of acute pancreatitis. Pancreas. 1996;13(4):356-371.
90. Ribes JA, Vanover-Sams CL, Baker DJ. Zygomycetes in human disease. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2000;13(2):236-301.
91. Richardson SE, Bannatyne RM, Summerbell RC, Milliken J, Gold R, Weitzman SS. Disseminated fusarial infection in the immunocompromised host. Rev Infect Dis. 1988;10(6):1171-1181.
92. Rippon JW, Zvetina JR, Reyes C. Case report: miliary blastomycosis with cerebral involvement. Mycopathologia. 1977;60(2):121-125.
93. Goodwin RA Jr, Shapiro JL, Thurman GH, Thurman SS, Des Prez RM. Disseminated histoplasmosis: clinical and pathologic correlations. Medicine (Baltimore). 1980;59(1):1-33.
94. Silva-Vergara ML, Maneira FR, De Oliveira RM, Santos CT, Etchebehere RM, Adad SJ. Multifocal sporotrichosis with meningeal involvement in a patient with AIDS. Med Mycol. 2005;43(2):187-190.
95. Bigliazzi C, Poletti V, Dell'Amore D, Saragoni L, Colby TV. Disseminated basidiobolomycosis in an immunocompetent woman. J Clin Microbiol. 2004;42(3):1367-1369.
96. Tsai CY, Lü YC, Wang LT, Hsu TL, Sung JL. Systemic chromoblastomycosis due to Hormodendrum dermatitidis (Kano) Conant: report of the first case in Taiwan. Am J Clin Pathol. 1966;46(1):103-114.
97. Pynka M, Wnuk A, Bander D, et al. Disseminated infection with Saccharomyces kluyveri in a patient with AIDS. Infection. 1998;26(3):184-186.
98. Shek YH, Tucker MC, Viciana AL, Manz HJ, Connor DH. Malassezia furfur-disseminated infection in premature infants. Am J Clin Pathol. 1989;92(5):595-603.
99. Hoerauf A, Hammer S, Müller-Myhsok B, Rupprecht H. Intra-abdominal Candida infection during acute necrotizing pancreatitis has a high prevalence and is associated with increased mortality. Crit Care Med. 1998;26(12):2010-2015.
100. De Waele JJ, Vogelaers D, Blot S, Colardyn F. Fungal infections in patients with severe acute pancreatitis and the use of prophylactic therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2003 Jul 15;37(2):208-213. Epub 2003 Jul 9.
101. Curley PJ. Endotoxin, cellular immune dysfunction and acute pancreatitis. Ann R Coll Surg Engl. 1996;78(6):531-535.
102. Felk A, Kretschmar M, Albrecht A, et al. Candida albicans hyphal formation and the expression of the Efg1-regulated proteinases Sap4 to Sap6 are required for the invasion of parenchymal organs. Infect Immun. 2002;70(7):3689-3700.
103. Trivedi CD, Pitchumoni CS. Drug-induced pancreatitis: an update. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2005;39(8):709-716.
104. Stuecklin-Utsch A, Hasan C, Bode U, Fleischhack G. Pancreatic toxicity after liposomal amphotericin B. Mycoses. 2002;45(5-6):170-173.
105. Sato K, Hayashi M, Utsugi M, Ishizuka T, Takagi H, Mori M. Acute pancreatitis in a patient treated with micafungin. Clin Ther. 2007;29(7):1468-1473.
106. Vazquez JA, Skiest DJ, Nieto L, et al. A multicenter randomized trial evaluating posaconazole versus fluconazole for the treatment of oropharyngeal candidiasis in subjects with HIV/AIDS. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;42(8):1179-1186.
107. Boyd AE, Modi S, Howard SJ, Moore CB, Keevil BG, Denning DW. Adverse reactions to voriconazole. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39(8):1241-1244.
108. Balian JD, Sukhova N, Harris JW, et al. The hydroxylation of omeprazole correlates with S-mephenytoin metabolism: a population study. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1995;57(6):662-669.
109. Lobo BL, Miwa LJ, Jungnickel PW. Possible ketoconazole-induced hypoglycemia letter]. Drug Intell Clin Pharm. 1988;22(7-8):632.
110. Niemi M, Backman JT, Neuvonen M, Laitila J, Neuvonen PJ, Kivistö KT. Effects of fluconazole and fluvoxamine on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of glimepiride. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2001;69(4):194-200.
111. Lazar JD, Wilner KD. Drug interactions with fluconazole. Rev Infect Dis. 1990;12(suppl 3):S327-S333.
112. Niemi M, Neuvonen M, Juntti-Patinen L, Backman JT, Neuvonen PJ. Effect of fluconazole on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of nateglinide. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2003;74(1):25-31.
113. Rowe BR, Thorpe J, Barnett A. Safety of fluconazole in women taking oral hypoglycaemic agents [letter]. Lancet. 1992;339(8787):255-256.
114. Miners JO, Birkett DJ. Cytochrome P4502C9: an enzyme of major importance in human drug metabolism. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1998;45(6):525-538.
115. Frenkel JK. Pathogenesis of infections of the adrenal gland leading to Addison's disease in man: the role of corticoids in adrenal and generalized infection. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1960;84:391-440.
116. Lio S, Cibin M, Marcello R, Viviani MA, Ajello L. Adrenal bilateral incidentaloma by reactivated histoplasmosis. J Endocrinol Invest. 2000;23(7):476-479.
117. Papadopoulos KI, Castor B, Klingspor L, Dejmek A, Lorén I, Bramnert M. Bilateral isolated adrenal coccidioidomycosis. J Intern Med. 1996;239(3):275-278.
118. Torres CM, Duarte E, Guimaraes JP, Moreira LF. Destructive lesion of the adrenal gland in South American blastomycosis (Lutz' disease). Am J Pathol. 1952;28(1):145-155.
119. Agarwal J, Agarwal G, Ayyagari A, Kar DK, Mishra SK, Bhatia E. Isolated Pneumocystis carinii infection of adrenal glands causing Addison's disease in a non-immunocompromised adult. Endocr Pathol. 2001 Spring; 12(1):87-91.
120. Maloney PJ. Addison's disease due to chronic disseminated coccidioidomycosis. AMA Arch Intern Med. 1952;90(6):869-878.
121. Del Negro G, Wajchenberg BL, Pereira VG, et al. Addison's disease associated with South American blastomycosis. Ann Intern Med. 1961;54:189-197.
122. Shah B, Taylor HC, Pillay I, Chung-Park M, Dobrinich R. Adrenal insufficiency due to cryptococcosis. JAMA. 1986;256(23):3247-3249.
123. Kent DC, Collier TM. Addison's disease associated with North American blastomycosis: a case report. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1965;25:164-169.
124. Zhu QZ, Hu J, Mulay S, Esch F, Shimasaki S, Solomon S. Isolation and structure of corticostatin peptides from rabbit fetal and adult lung. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1988;85(2):592-596.
125. Alteras I, Cojocaru I, Balanescu A. Generalized candidiasis associated with Addison's disease. Mykosen. 1969;12(9):575-577.
126. Karim M, Sheikh H, Alam M, Sheikh Y. Disseminated Bipolaris infection in an asthmatic patient: case report. Clin Infect Dis. 1993;17(2):248-253.
127. Washburn RG, Bennett JE. Reversal of adrenal glucocorticoid dysfunction in a patient with disseminated histoplasmosis. Ann Intern Med. 1989;110(1):86-87.
128. Osa SR, Peterson RE, Roberts RB. Recovery of adrenal reserve following treatment of disseminated South American blastomycosis. Am J Med. 1981;71(2):298-301.
129. Del Negro G, Melo EH, Rodbard D, Melo MR, Layton J, Wachslicht-Rodbard H. Limited adrenal reserve in paracoccidioidomycosis: cortisol and aldosterone responses to 1-24 ACTH. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1980;13(6):553-559.
130. Leal AM, Magalhães PK, Martinez R, Moreira AC. Adrenocortical hormones and interleukin patterns in paracoccidioidomycosis. J Infect Dis. 2003 Jan 1;187(1):124-127. Epub 2002 Dec 13.
131. Kawashima A, Sandler CM, Fishman EK, et al. Spectrum of CT findings in nonmalignant disease of the adrenal gland. Radiographics. 1998;18(2):393-412.
132. Lamberts SW, Bons EG, Bruining HA, de Jong FH. Differential effects of the imidazole derivatives etomidate, ketoconazole and miconazole and of metyrapone on the secretion of cortisol and its precursors by human adrenocortical cells. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1987;240(1):259-264.
133. Loose DS, Kan PB, Hirst MA, Marcus RA, Feldman D. Ketoconazole blocks adrenal steroidogenesis by inhibiting cytochrome P450-dependent enzymes. J Clin Invest. 1983;71(5):1495-1499.
134. Sonino N. The use of ketoconazole as an inhibitor of steroid production. N Engl J Med. 1987;317(13):812-818.
135. Leal-Cerro A, García Luna PP, Villar J, et al. Ketoconazole as an inhibitor of steroid production [letter]. N Engl J Med. 1988;318(11):710-711.
136. Pont A, Williams PL, Loose DS, et al. Ketoconazole blocks adrenal steroid synthesis. Ann Intern Med. 1982;97(3):370-372.
137. Pont A, Graybill JR, Craven PC, et al. High-dose ketoconazole therapy and adrenal and testicular function in humans. Arch Intern Med. 1984;144(11):2150-2153.
138. Tucker WS Jr, Snell BB, Island DP, Gregg CR. Reversible adrenal insufficiency induced by ketoconazole. JAMA. 1985;253(16):2413-2414.
139. Best TR, Jenkins JK, Murphy FY, Nicks SA, Bussell KL, Vesely DL. Persistent adrenal insufficiency secondary to low-dose ketoconazole therapy. Am J Med. 1987;82(3):676-680.
140. Loose DS, Stover EP, Feldman D. Ketoconazole binds to glucocorticoid receptors and exhibits glucocorticoid antagonist activity in cultured cells. J Clin Invest. 1983;72(1):404-408.
141. Sonino N, Boscaro M, Paoletta A, Mantero F, Ziliotto D. Ketoconazole treatment in Cushing's syndrome: experience in 34 patients. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1991;35(4):347-352.
142. Contreras P, Rojas A, Biagini L, González P, Massardo T. Regression of metastatic adrenal carcinoma during palliative ketoconazole treatment [letter]. Lancet. 1985;2(8447):151-152.
143. Shepherd FA, Hoffert B, Evans WK, Emery G, Trachtenberg J. Ketoconazole: use in the treatment of ectopic adrenocorticotropic hormone production and Cushing's syndrome in small-cell lung cancer. Arch Intern Med. 1985;145(5):863-864.
144. Duret C, Daujat-Chavanieu M, Pascussi JM, et al. Ketoconazole and miconazole are antagonists of the human glucocorticoid receptor: consequences on the expression and function of the constitutive androstane receptor and the pregnane X receptor. Mol Pharmacol. 2006 Jul;70(1):329-339. Epub 2006 Apr 11.
145. Benito P, Corpas MS, Quesada JM, Jiménez JA. Control of hyperaldosteronism by ketoconazole [letter]. Drug Intell Clin Pharm. 1987;21(9):752.
146. Aabo K, De Coster R. Hypertension during high-dose ketoconazole treatment: a probable mineralocorticosteroid effect [letter]. Lancet. 1987;2(8559):637-638.
147. Albert SG, DeLeon MJ, Silverberg AB. Possible association between high-dose fluconazole and adrenal insufficiency in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med. 2001;29(3):668-670.
148. Magill SS, Puthanakit T, Swoboda SM, et al. Impact of fluconazole prophylaxis on cortisol levels in critically ill surgical patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2004;48(7):2471-2476.
149. Santhana Krishnan SG, Cobbs RK. Reversible acute adrenal insufficiency caused by fluconazole in a critically ill patient. Postgrad Med J. 2006;82(971):e23.
150. Riedl M, Maier C, Zettinig G, Nowotny P, Schima W, Luger A. Long term control of hypercortisolism with fluconazole: case report and in vitro studies. Eur J Endocrinol. 2006;154(4):519-524.
151. Queiroz-Telles F, Purim KS, Boguszewski CL, Afonso FC, Graf H. Adrenal response to corticotrophin and testosterone during long-term therapy with itraconazole in patients with chromoblastomycosis. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1997;40(6):899-902.
152. Sharkey PK, Rinaldi MG, Dunn JF, Hardin TC, Fetchick RJ, Graybill JR. High-dose itraconazole in the treatment of severe mycoses. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1991;35(4):707-713.
153. Skov M, Main KM, Sillesen IB, Müller J, Koch C, Lanng S. Iatrogenic adrenal insufficiency as a side-effect of combined treatment of itraconazole and budesonide. Eur Respir J. 2002;20(1):127-133.
154. Varis T, Kivistö KT, Backman JT, Neuvonen PJ. Itraconazole decreases the clearance and enhances the effects of intravenously administered methylprednisolone in healthy volunteers. Pharmacol Toxicol. 1999;85(1):29-32.
155. DeRijk RH, Schaaf M, de Kloet ER. Glucocorticoid receptor variants: clinical implications. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2002;81(2):103-122.
156. Deray G. Amphotericin B nephrotoxicity. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2002;49(suppl 1):37-41.
157. Mohan S, Ahmed S, Alimohammadi B, Jaitly M, Cheng JT, Pogue VA. Proteinuria lowers the risk of amphotericin B-associated hypokalaemia. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2007 Sep;60(3):690-693. Epub 2007 Jun 27.
158. Cornely OA, Maertens J, Bresnik M, et al; AmBiLoad Trial Study Group. Liposomal amphotericin B as initial therapy for invasive mold infection: a randomized trial comparing a high-loading dose regimen with standard dosing (AmBiLoad Trial). Clin Infect Dis. 2007 May 15;44(10):1289-1297. Epub 2007 Apr 9.
159. Wazny LD, Brophy DF. Amiloride for the prevention of amphotericin B-induced hypokalemia and hypomagnesemia. Ann Pharmacother. 2000;34(1):94-97.
160. Ural AU, Avcu F, Cetin T, et al. Spironolactone: is it a novel drug for the prevention of amphotericin B-related hypokalemia in cancer patients? Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2002;57(11):771-773.
161. Nucci M, Loureiro M, Silveira F, et al. Comparison of the toxicity of amphotericin B in 5% dextrose with that of amphotericin B in fat emulsion in a randomized trial with cancer patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1999;43(6):1445-1448.
162. Glasmacher A, Cornely O, Ullmann AJ, et al; Itraconazole Research Group of Germany. An open-label randomized trial comparing itraconazole oral solution with fluconazole oral solution for primary prophylaxis of fungal infections in patients with haematological malignancy and profound neutropenia. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2006 Feb;57(2):317-325. Epub 2005 Dec 8.
163. Denning DW, Ribaud P, Milpied N, et al. Efficacy and safety of voriconazole in the treatment of acute invasive aspergillosis. Clin Infect Dis. 2002 Mar 1;34(5):563-571. Epub 2002 Jan 22.
164. Nelson MR, Smith D, Erskine D, Gazzard BG. Ventricular fibrillation secondary to itraconazole induced hypokalaemia [letter]. J Infect. 1993;26(3):348.
165. Arathoon EG, Gotuzzo E, Noriega LM, Berman RS, DiNubile MJ, Sable CA. Randomized, double-blind, multicenter study of caspofungin versus amphotericin B for treatment of oropharyngeal and esophageal candidiases. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2002;46(2):451-457.
166. Craven PC, Gremillion DH. Risk factors of ventricular fibrillation during rapid amphotericin B infusion. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1985;27(5):868-871.
167. Barton CH, Pahl M, Vaziri ND, Cesario T. Renal magnesium wasting associated with amphotericin B therapy. Am J Med. 1984;77(3):471-474.
168. Kraemer FB, Pont A. Inhibition of cholesterol synthesis by ketoconazole. Am J Med. 1986;80(4):616-622.
169. Dushkin MI, Zenkov NK, Menshikova EB, Pivovarova EN, Lyubimov GY, Volksy NN. Ketoconazole inhibits oxidative modification of low density lipoprotein. Atherosclerosis. 1995;114(1):9-18.
170. Kesäniemi YA, Miettinen TA. Inhibition of cholesterol absorption by neomycin, benzodiazepine derivatives and ketoconazole. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1991;40(suppl 1):S65-S67.
171. Gylling H, Vanhanen H, Miettinen TA. Effects of ketoconazole on cholesterol precursors and low density lipoprotein kinetics in hypercholesterolemia. J Lipid Res. 1993;34(1):59-67.
172. Dismukes WE, Stamm AM, Graybill JR, et al. Treatment of systemic mycoses with ketoconazole: emphasis on toxicity and clinical response in 52 patients: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases collaborative antifungal study. Ann Intern Med. 1983;98(1):13-20.
173. Tucker RM, Haq Y, Denning DW, Stevens DA. Adverse events associated with itraconazole in 189 patients on chronic therapy. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1990;26(4):561-566.
174. Wise GJ, Talluri GS, Marella VK. Fungal infections of the genitourinary system: manifestations, diagnosis, and treatment. Urol Clin North Am. 1999;26(4):701-718.
175. Powell CR, Allshouse M, Bethel KJ, Mevorach RA. Invasive aspergillosis of the scrotum. J Urol. 1998;159(4):1306-1308.
176. Tomimori-Yamashita J, Tagliolatto S, Porro AM, Ogawa MM, Michalany NS, Camargo ZP. Paracoccidioidomycosis: an uncommon localization in the scrotum. Mycoses. 1997;40(11-12):415-418.
177. James CL, Lomax-Smith JD. Cryptococcal epididymo-orchitis complicating steroid therapy for relapsing polychondritis. Pathology. 1991;23(3):256-258.
178. Hironaga M, Okazaki N, Saito K, Watanabe S. Trichophyton mentagrophytes granulomas: unique systemic dissemination to lymph nodes, testes, vertebrae, and brain. Arch Dermatol. 1983;119(6):482-490.
179. Patel PJ, Pareek SS. Scrotal ultrasound in male infertility. Eur Urol. 1989;16(6):423-425.
180. Nagy B, Sutka P. Demonstration of antibodies against Candida guilliermondii var. guilliermondii in asymptomatic infertile men. Mycoses. 1992;35(9-10):247-250.
181. Nagy B, Sutka P, Ziwe-el-Abidine M, et al. Candida guilliermondii var. guilliermondii infection in infertile women. Mycoses. 1989;32(9):463-468.
182. Tuttle JP Jr, Bannister ER, Derrick FC. Interference of human spermatozoal motility and spermatozoal agglutination by Candida albicans. J Urol. 1977;118(5):797-799.
183. Staib F, Seibold M, L'age M, et al. Cryptococcus neoformans in the seminal fluid of an AIDS patient: a contribution to the clinical course of cryptococcosis. Mycoses. 1989;32(4):171-180.
184. Zinedine A, Soriano JM, Moltó JC, Mañes J. Review on the toxicity, occurrence, metabolism, detoxification, regulations and intake of zearalenone: an oestrogenic mycotoxin. Food Chem Toxicol. 2007 Jan;45(1):1-18. Epub 2006 Aug 30.
185. Schürmeyer T, Nieschlag E. Effect of ketoconazole and other imidazole fungicides on testosterone biosynthesis. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh). 1984;105(2):275-280.
186. Pont A, Williams PL, Azhar S, et al. Ketoconazole blocks testosterone synthesis. Arch Intern Med. 1982;142(12):2137-2140.
187. Pont A, Goldman ES, Sugar AM, Siiteri PK, Stevens DA. Ketoconazole-induced increase in estradiol-testosterone ratio: probable explanation for gynecomastia. Arch Intern Med. 1985;145(8):1429-1431.
188. Glass AR. Ketoconazole-induced stimulation of gonadotropin output in men: basis for a potential test of gonadotropin reserve. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1986;63(5):1121-1125.
189. Trachtenberg J, Pont A. Ketoconazole therapy for advanced prostate cancer. Lancet. 1984;2(8400):433-435.
190. Holland FJ, Fishman L, Bailey JD, Fazekas AT. Ketoconazole in the management of precocious puberty not responsive to LHRH-analogue therapy. N Engl J Med. 1985;312(16):1023-1028.
191. Hugo Perez BS. Ketoconazole as an adjunct to finasteride in the treatment of androgenetic alopecia in men. Med Hypotheses. 2004;62(1):112-115.
192. Faredin I, Tóth I, Oszlánczy J, Scultéty S. In vitro study of rat prostate 5 alpha-reductase activity and its inhibition. Int Urol Nephrol. 1992;24(2):145-154.
193. Eil C. Ketoconazole binds to the human androgen receptor. Horm Metab Res. 1992;24(8):367-370.
194. el-Medany AH, Hagar HH. Effect of fluconazole on the fertility of male rabbits. Arzneimittelforschung. 2002;52(8):636-640.
195. Hanger DP, Jevons S, Shaw JT. Fluconazole and testosterone: in vivo and in vitro studies. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1988;32(5):646-648.
196. Foote RH. Spermicidal effects of amphotericin B and nystatin on bull and rabbit sperm and contraceptive effects in rabbits. Contraception. 2002;66(3):193-197.
197. Kim SW, Nah MY, Yeum CH, et al. Pelvic aspergillosis with tuboovarian abscess in a renal transplant recipient. J Infect. 2001;42(3):215-217.
198. Rodriguez M, Okagaki T, Richart RM. Mycotic endometritis due to Candida: a case report. Obstet Gynecol. 1972;39(2):292-294.
199. Craig MW, Davey WN, Green RA. Conjugal blastomycosis. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1970;102(1):86-90.
200. Chowfin A, Tight R. Female genital coccidioidomycosis (FGC), Addison's disease and sigmoid loop abscess due to Coccidioides immitis: case report and review of literature on FGC. Mycopathologia. 1999;145(3):121-126.
201. Sheyn I, Mira JL, Thompson MB. Paracoccidioides brasiliensis in a postpartum Pap smear: a case report. Acta Cytol. 2001;45(1):79-81.
202. Sills M, Schwartz A, Weg JG. Conjugal histoplasmosis: a consequence of progressive dissemination in the index case after steroid therapy. Ann Intern Med. 1973;79(2):221-224.
203. Padhye AA, Hall L, Roberts GD. Deep-seated trichosporonosis in an immunocompetent patient: a case report of uterine trichosporonosis-correction [letter]. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;35(1):108-109
204. Arora NS, Oblinger MJ, Feldman PS. Chronic pleural blastomycosis with hyperprolactinemia, galactorrhea, and amenorrhea. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1979;120(2):451-455.
205. Weber MM, Will A, Adelmann B, Engelhardt D. Effect of ketoconazole on human ovarian C17,20-desmolase and aromatase. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 1991;38(2):213-218.
206. Harris AL, Cantwell BM, Dowsett M. High dose ketoconazole: endocrine and therapeutic effects in postmenopausal breast cancer. Br J Cancer. 1988;58(4):493-496.
207. Cummings AM, Hedge JL, Laskey J. Ketoconazole impairs early pregnancy and the decidual cell response via alterations in ovarian function. Fundam Appl Toxicol. 1997;40(2):238-246.
208. National Institutes of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Mycoses Study Group. Treatment of blastomycosis and histoplasmosis with ketoconazole: results of a prospective randomized clinical trial. Ann Intern Med. 1985;103(6, pt 1):861-872.
209. Vidal-Puig AJ, Muñoz-Torres M, Jódar-Gimeno E, et al. Ketoconazole therapy: hormonal and clinical effects in non-tumoral hyperandrogenism. Eur J Endocrinol. 1994;130(4):333-338.
210. Raad II, Graybill JR, Bustamante AB, et al. Safety of long-term oral posaconazole use in the treatment of refractory invasive fungal infections. Clin Infect Dis. 2006 Jun 15;42(12):1726-1734. Epub 2006 May 8.
211. Sinofsky FE, Pasquale SA. The effect of fluconazole on circulating ethinyl estradiol levels in women taking oral contraceptives. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1998;178(2):300-304.
212. Andrews E, Damle BD, Fang A, et al. Pharmacokinetics and tolerability of voriconazole and a combination oral contraceptive co-administered in healthy female subjects. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2008 Apr;65(4):531-539. Epub Feb 21.
213. Pillans PI, Sparrow MJ. Pregnancy associated with a combined oral contraceptive and itraconazole [letter]. N Z Med J. 1993;106(965):436.