Extrapulmonary pneumocystosis

Clinical Microbiology Reviews

Volumn 10, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 401-418

  Ng, Valerie L ^a   Yajko, David M ^a   Hadley, W Keith ^a  

^a SAN FRANCISCO GENERAL HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COTRIMOXAZOLE; DAPSONE; PENTAMIDINE; TRIMETHOPRIM;

CLINICAL FEATURE; HOST RESISTANCE; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS 1; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; IMMUNE DEFICIENCY; INHALATIONAL DRUG ADMINISTRATION; INTRAVENOUS DRUG ADMINISTRATION; PARASITE TRANSMISSION; PNEUMOCYSTIS PNEUMONIA; PNEUMOCYSTOSIS; PROPHYLAXIS; REVIEW; STAINING; STRAIN DIFFERENCE; TAXONOMY; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS 1; PNEUMOCYSTIS CARINI; PNEUMOCYSTIS CARINII;

EID: 0030796859     PISSN: 08938512     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1128/cmr.10.3.401-418.1997     Document Type: Review

References (143)

1. Afessa, B., W. R. Green, W. A. Williams, N. G. Hagler, R. V. Gumbs, R. L. Hackney, and W. R. Frederick. 1988. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia complicated by lymphadenopathy and pneumothorax. Arch. Intern. Med. 148: 2651-2654.
2. Anderson, C. D., and H. J. Barrie. 1960. Fatal Pneumocystis pneumonia in an adult. Report of a case. Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 34:365-370.
3. Awen, C. F., and M. A. Baltzan. 1971. Systemic dissemination of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 104:809-812.
4. Barnett, R. N., J. G. Hull, V. Vortel, H. Kralove, and J. Schwarz. 1969. Pneumocystis carinii in lymph nodes and spleen. Arch. Pathol. 88:175-180.
5. Bellomo, A. R., D. C. Perlman, D. L. Kaminsky, E. M. Brettholz, and J. G. Sarlin. 1992. Pneumocystis colitis in a patient with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 87:759-761.
6. Boldorini, R., S. Guzzetti, L. Meroni, T. Quirino, S. Cristina, and G. Monga. 1995. Acute hepatic and renal failure caused by Pneumocystis carinii in patients with AIDS. J. Clin. Pathol. 48:975-978.
7. Bozzette, S. A., D. M. Finkelstein, S. A. Spector, P. Frame, W. G. Powderly, W. He, L. Phillips, D. Craven, C. van der Horst, and J. Feinberg, for the NIAID AIDS Clinical Trials Group. 1995. A randomized trial of three antipneumocystis agents in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 332:693-699.
8. Breda, S. D., P. E. Hammerschlag, F. Gigliotti, and K. Schinella. 1988. Pneumocystis carinii in the temporal bone as a primary manifestation of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol. 97: 427-431.
9. Burke, B. A., and R. A. Good. 1973. Pneumocystis carinii infection. Medicine 52:23-51.
10. Carini, A. 1911. Formas de eschizogonia do Trypanosoma Lewisii. Soc. Med. Civ Sao Paulo (Pasteur) 9:937.
11. Carlin, E. M., R. J. Coker, R. D. Goldin, and J. R. W. Harris. 1993. Systemic Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia prophylaxis with dapsone and pyrimethamine fails to protect against extrapulmonary pneumocystosis. Genitourin. Med. 69:130-132.
12. Carter, T. R., P. H. Cooper, W. A. Petri, Jr., C. K. Kim, P. D. Walzer, and R. L. Guerrant. 1988. Pneumocystis carinii infection of the small intestine in a patient with acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 89:679-683.
13. Centers for Disease Control. 1989. AIDS weekly surveillance report, 30 January 1989, p. 1-5. Centers for Disease Control, Atlanta, Ga.
14. Chagas, C. 1909. Nova tripanozomiaze humana. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz Rio J. 1:159-218.
15. Chary-Reddy, S., and D. C. Graves. 1996. Identification of extrapulmonary Pneumocystis carinii in immunocompromised rats by PCR. J. Clin. Microbiol. 34:1660-1665.
16. Chen, W., F. Gigliotti, and A. G. Harmsen. 1993. Latency is not an inevitable outcome of infection with Pneumocystis carinii. Infect. Immun. 61: 5406-5409.
17. Chusid, M. J., and K. A. Heyrman. 1978. An outbreak of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia at a pediatric hospital. Pediatrics 62:1031-1035.
18. Cohen, O. J., and M. Y. Stoeckle. 1991. Extrapulmonary Pneumocystis carinii infections in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Arch. Intern. Med. 151:1205-1214.
19. Cote, R. J., M. Rosenblum, E. E. Telzak, M. May, P. D. Unger, and R. W. Cartun. 1990. Disseminated Pneumocystis carinii infection causing extrapulmonary organ failure: clinical, pathologic, and immunohistochemical analysis. Mod. Pathol. 3:25-30.
20. Coulman, C. U., I. Greene, and R. W. R. Archibald. 1987. Cutaneous pneumocystosis. Ann. Intern. Med. 106:396-398.
21. Cregan, P., A. Yamamoto, A. Lum, T. VanderHeide, M. MacDonald, and L. Pulliam. 1990. Comparison of four methods for rapid detection of Pneumocystis carinii in respiratory specimens. J. Clin. Microbiol. 28:2432-2436.
22. Cushion, M. T., J. Zhang, M. Kaselis, D. Giuntoli, S. L. Stringer, and J. R. Stringer. 1993. Evidence for two genetic variants of Pneumocystis carinii coinfecting laboratory rats. J. Clin. Microbiol. 31:1217-1223.
23. Davey, R. T., Jr., D. Margolis, D. Kleiner, L. Deyton, and W. Travis. 1989. Digital necrosis and disseminated Pneumocystis carinii infection after aerosolized pentamidine prophylaxis. Ann. Intern. Med. 111:681-682.
24. Delanoe, P., and Mme. Delanoe. 1912. Sur les rapports des kystes de Carinii des poumon des rats avec le Trypanosoma lewisi. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 155:658-660.
25. Dembinski, A. S., D. M. Smith, J. C. Goldsmith, and G. L. Woods. 1991. Widespread dissemination of Pneumocystis carinii infection in a patient with acquired immune deficiency syndrome receiving long-term treatment with aerosolized pentamidine. Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 95:96-100.
26. Dugel, P. U., N. A. Rao, D. J. Forster, L. P. Chong, G. T. Frangieh, and F. Sattler. 1990. Pneumocystis carinii choroiditis after long-term aerosolized pentamidine therapy. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 110:113-117.
27. Dyer, M., F. Volpe, C. J. Delves, N. Somia, S. Burns, and J. G. Scaife. 1992. Cloning and sequence of a β-tubulin cDNA from Pneumocystis carinii: possible implications for drug therapy. Mol. Microbiol. 6:991-1001.
28. Dyner, T. S., W. Lang, D. F. Busch, and P. R. Gordon. 1989. Intravascular and pleural involvement by Pneumocystis carinii in a patient with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Ann. Intern. Med. 111:94-95. (Letter.)
29. Edlind, T. D., M. S. Bartlett, G. A. Weinberg, G. N. Prah, and J. W. Smith. 1992. The β-tubulin gene from rat and human isolates of Pneumocystis carinii. Mol. Microbiol. 6:3365-3373.
30. Edman, J. C., U. Edman, M. Cao, B. Lundgren, J. A. Kovacs, and D. Santi. 1989. Isolation and expression of the Pneumocystis carinii dihydrofolate reductase gene. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86:8625-8629.
31. Edman, J. C., J. A. Kovacs, H. Masur, D. Santi, H. Elwood, and M. Sogin. 1988. Ribosomal RNA sequence shows Pneumocystis carinii to be a member of the fungi. Nature 332:519-522.
32. Edman, J. C., and M. L. Sogin. 1994. Molecular Phylogeny of Pneumocystis carinii, p. 91-105. In P. D. Walzer (ed.), Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia, 2nd ed. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, N.Y.
33. Edman, U., J. C. Edman, B. Lundgren, and D. Santi. 1989. Isolation and expression of the Pneumocystis carinii thymidylate synthase gene. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86:6503-6507.
34. Ezekowitz, R. A. B., D. J. Williams, H. Koziel, M. Y. K. Armstrong, A. Warner, F. F. Richards, and R. M. Rose. 1991. Uptake of Pneumocystis carinii mediated by the macrophage mannose receptor. Nature 351:155-158.
35. enelon, L. E., C. T. Keane, M. Bakir, and I. J. Temperley. 1985. A cluster of Pneumocystis carinii infections in children. Br. Med. J. 291:1683. (Letter.)
36. Freeman, W. R., J. G. Gross, J. Labelle, K. Oteken, B. Katz, and C. A. Wiley. 1989. Pneumocystis carinii choroidopathy. A new clinical entity. Arch. Ophthalmol. 107:863-867.
37. Frenkel, J. K., J. T. Good, and J. A. Schultz. 1966. Latent pneumocystis infection of rats, relapse and chemotherapy. Lab. Invest. 15:1559-1577.
38. Friedberg, D. M., J. B. Green, and D. L. Brook. 1990. Asymptomatic disseminated Pneumocystis carinii infection detected by ophthalmoscopy. Lancet 336:1256-1257.
39. Furuta, T., K. Ueda, S. Kyuwa, and K. Fujiwara. 1984. Effect of T-cell transfer on Pneumocystis carinii infection in nude mice. Jpn. J. Exp. Med. 54:57-64.
40. Gallant, J. E., R. E. Enriquez, K. L. Cohen, and L. W. Hammers. 1988. Pneumocystis carinii thyroiditis. Am. J. Med. 84:303-306.
41. Gauthier, J. W., and H. D. Sybers. 1993. Widely disseminated Pneumocystis carinii infection associated with cytomegalovirus pneumonitis. South. Med. J. 86:964-966.
42. Gherman, C. R., R. R. Ward, and M. L. Bassis. 1988. Pneumocystis carinii otitis media and mastoiditis as the initial manifestation of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am. J. Med. 85:250-252.
43. Gill, V. J., G. Evans, F. Stock, J. E. Parrillo, H. Masur, and J. A. Kovacs. 1987. Detection of Pneumocystis carinii by fluorescent-antibody stain using a combination of three monoclonal antibodies. J. Clin. Microbiol. 25:1837-1840.
44. Girard, P.-M., R. Landman, C. Gaudebout, R. Olivares, A. G. Saimot, P. Jelazko, C. Gaudebot, A. Certain, F. Boue, E. Bouvet, T. Lecompte, J.-P. Coulaud, and the PRIO Study Group. 1993. Dapsone-pyrimethamine compared with aerosolized pentamidine as primary prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia and toxoplasmosis in HIV infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 328:1514-1520.
45. Grimes, M. M., J. D. LaPook, M. H. Bar, H. S. Wasserman, and A. Dwork. 1987. Disseminated Pneumocystis carinii infection in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Hum. Pathol. 18:307-308.
46. Hagopian, W. A., and J. S. Huseby. 1989. Pneumocystis hepatitis and choroiditis despite successful aerosolized pentamidine pulmonary prophylaxis. Chest 96:949-951.
47. Hardy, W. D., D. W. Northfelt, and T. A. Drake. 1989. Fatal, disseminated pneumocystosis in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome receiving prophylactic aerosolized pentamidine. Am. J. Med. 87:329-331.
48. Henderson, D. W., V. Humeniuk, R. Meadows, and I. J. Forbes. 1974. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia with vascular and lymph nodal involvement. Pathology 6:235-241.
49. Hennigar, G. R., K. Vinijchaikul, A. L. Roque, and H. A. Lyons. 1961. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in an adult. Report of a case. Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 35:353-364.
50. Heyman, M. R., and P. Rasmussen. 1987. Pneumocystis carinii involvement of the bone marrow in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 87:780-783.
51. Hirschel, B., A. Lazzarin, P. Chopard, M. Opravil, H.-J. Furrer, S. Ruttimann, P. Vernazza, J.-P., Chave, F. Ancarani, V. Gabriel, A. Heald, R. King, R. Malinverni, J.-L. Martin, B. Mermillod, L. Nicod, L. Simoni, M. C. Vivirito, R. Zerboni, and the Swiss Group for Clinical Studies on AIDS. 1991. A controlled study of inhaled pentamidine for primary prevention of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. N. Engl. J. Med. 324: 1079-1083.
52. Hong, S.-T., P. E. Steele, M. T. Cushion, P. D. Walzer, S. L. Stringer, and J. R. Stringer. 1990. Pneumocystis carinii karyotypes. J. Clin. Microbiol. 28:1785-1795.
53. Hughes, W. T. 1982. Natural mode of acquisition for de novo infection with Pneumocystis carinii. J. Infect. Dis. 145:842-848.
54. Hughes, W. T. 1987. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonitis, vol. 1., p. 1-7. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, Fla.
55. Hughes, W. T. 1987. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonitis, vol. 1., p. 57-69. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, Fla.
56. Hughes, W. T. 1987. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonitis, vol. 1., p. 97-104. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, Fla.
57. Hughes, W. T., D. L. Bartley, and B. S. Smith. 1983. A natural source of infection due to Pneumocystis carinii. J. Infect. Dis. 147:595.
58. Jacobs, J. L., D. M. Libby, R. A. Winters, D. M. Gelmont, E. D. Fried, B. J. Hartman, and J. Laurence. 1991. A cluster of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in adults without predisposing illnesses. N. Engl. J. Med. 324:246-250.
59. Jarnum, S., E. F. Rasmussen, A. S. Ohlsen, and A. W. S. Sorensen. 1968. Generalized Pneumocystis carinii infection with severe idiopathic hypoproteinemia. Ann. Intern. Med. 68:138-145.
60. Jayes, R. L., H. N. Kamerow, S. M. Hasselquist, M. D. Delaney, and D. M. Parenti. 1993. Disseminated pneumocystosis presenting as a pleural effusion. Chest 103:306-308.
61. Jules-Elysee, K. M., D. E. Stover, M. B. Zaman, E. M. Bernard, and D. A. White. 1990. Aerosolized pentamidine: effect on diagnosis and presentation of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Ann. Intern. Med. 112: 750-757.
62. Kaplan, J. E., H. Masur, K. K. Holmes, M. M. McNeil, L. S. Schonberger, T. R. Navin, D. L. Hanson, P. A. Gross, H. W. Jaffe, and the USPHS/IDSA Prevention of Opportunistic Infections Working Group. 1995. USPHS/ IDSA guidelines for the prevention of opportunistic infections in persons infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Introduction. Clin. Infect. Dis. 21(Suppl. 1):S1-S11.
63. Kaplan, J. E., H. Masur, K. K. Holmes, C. M. Wilfert, R. Sperling, S. A. Baker, C. B. Trapnell, K. A. Freedberg, D. Cotton, W. G. Powderly, H. W. Jaffe, and the USPHS/IDSA Prevention of Opportunistic Infections Working Group. 1995. USPHS/IDSA guidelines for the prevention of opportunistic infections in persons infected with human immunodeficiency virus. An overview. Clin. Infect. Dis. 21(Suppl. 1):S12-S31.
64. Katz, M. H., N. A. Hessol, S. P. Buchbinder, A. Hirozawa, P. O'Malley, and S. D. Holmberg. 1994. Temporal trends of opportunistic infections and malignancies in homosexual men with AIDS. J. Infect. Dis. 170: 198-202.
65. Kohan, D., S. G. Rothstein, and N. L. Cohen. 1988. Otologic disease in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol. 97:636-640.
66. Kwok, S., J. J. O'Donnell, and I. S. Wood. 1982. Retinal cotton-wool spots in a patient with Pneumocystis carinii infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 307:184-185. (Letter.)
67. Lecuit, J., J. Livartowski, C. Vons, C. Goujard, G. Lemaigre, J.-F. Delfraissy, and J. Dormont. 1994. Resistance to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole and sensitivity to pentamidine therapy in an AIDS patient with hepatosplenic pneumocystosis. AIDS 8:1506-1507.
68. Lee, C.-H., J.-J. Lu, M. S. Bartlett, M. M. Durkin, T.-H. Liu, J. Wang, B. Jiang, and J. W. Smith. 1993. Nucleotide sequence variation in Pneumocystis carinii strains that infect humans. J. Clin. Microbiol. 31: 754-757.
69. LeGolvan, D. P., and K. P. Heidelberger. 1973. Disseminated, granulomatous Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Arch. Pathol. 95:344-348.
70. Leoung, G. S., D. W. Feigal, Jr., A. B. Montgomery, K. Corkery, L. Wardlaw, M. Adams, D. Busch, S. Gordon, M. A. Jacobson, P. A. Volberding, D. Abrams, and the San Francisco County Community Consortium. 1990. Aerosolized pentamidine for prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. N. Engl. J. Med. 323:769-775.
71. Levine, S. J., H. Masur, V. J. Gill, I. Feuerstein, A. F. Suffredini, D. Brown, H. C. Lane, R. Yarchoan, J. H. Shelhamer, and F. P. Ognibene. 1991. Effect of aerosolized pentamidine prophylaxis on the diagnosis of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia by induced sputum examination in patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 144:760-764.
72. Livingstone, C. S. 1964. Pneumocystis pneumonia occurring in a family with agammaglobulinemia. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 90:1223-1225.
73. Lundgren, B., R. Cotton, J. D. Lundgren, J. C. Edman, and J. A. Kovacs. 1990. Identification of Pneumocystis carinii chromosomes and mapping of five genes. Infect. Immun. 58:1705-1710.
74. Macher, A. M., D. S. Bardenstein, L. E. Zimmerman, C. K. Steigman, L. Pastore, D. M. Poretz, and L. J. Eron. 1987. Pneumocystis carinii choroiditis in a male homosexual with AIDS and disseminated pulmonary and extrapulmonary P. carinii infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 316:1092. (Letter.)
75. Mathews, W. C., S. A. Bozzette, S. Harrity, W. Meurer, and T. Viesca. 1992. Pneumocystis carinii peritonitis. Antemortem confirmation of disseminated pneumocystosis by cytologic examination of body fluids. Arch. Intern. Med. 152:867-869.
76. Matsuda, S., Y. Urata, T. Shiota, M. Yamada, H. Yoshikawa, T. Tegoshi, M. Okada, H. Nakamura, T. Kitaoka, T. Ashihara, and Y. Yoshida. 1989. Disseminated infection of Pneumocystis carinii in a patient with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Virchows Arch. Abt. A 414:523-527.
77. Matusiewicz, S. P., R. J. Fergusson, A. P. Greening, G. K. Crompton, and S. M. Burns. 1994. Pneumocystis carinii in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and bronchial washings. Br. Med. J. 308:1206-1207.
78. McCarty, M., R. Coker, and E. Claydon. 1992. Case report: Disseminated Pneumocystis carinii infection in a patient with the acquired immune deficiency syndrome causing thyroid gland calcification and hypothyroidism. Clin. Radiol. 45:209-210.
79. Metersky, J. L., and A. Catanzaro. 1991. Diagnostic approach to Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in the setting of prophylactic aerosolized pentamidine. Chest 100:1345-1349.
80. Millard, P. R., and A. R. Heryet. 1988. Observations favoring Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia as a primary infection: a monoclonal antibody study on paraffin sections. J. Pathol. 154:365-370.
81. Mortier, E., J. Pouchot, P. Bossi, and V. Molinie. 1995. Maternal-fetal transmission of Pneumocystis carinii in human immunodeficiency virus infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 332:825. (Letter.)
82. Ng, V. L., S. M. Geaghan, G. Leoung, S. Shiboski, J. Fahy, L. Schnapp, D. M. Yajko, P. C. Hopewell, and W. K. Hadley. 1993. Lack of effect of prophylactic aerosolized pentamidine on the detection of Pneumocystis carinii in induced sputum or bronchoalveolar lavage specimens. Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. 117:493-496.
83. Ng, V. L., N. A. Virani, R. E. Chaisson, D. M. Yajko, H. T. Sphar, K. Cabrian, N. Rollins, P. Charache, M. Krieger, W. K. Hadley, and P. C. Hopewell. 1990. Rapid detection of Pneumocystis carinii using a direct fluorescent monoclonal antibody stain. J. Clin. Microbiol. 28: 2228-2233.
84. Ng, V. L., D. M. Yajko, L. W. McPhaul, I. Gartner, B. Byford, C. D. Goodman, P. S. Nassos, C. A. Sanders, E. L. Howes, G. Leoung, P. C. Hopewell, and W. K. Hadley. 1990. Evaluation of an indirect fluorescent-antibody stain for detection of Pneumocystis carinii in respiratory specimens. J. Clin. Microbiol. 28:975-979.
85. Northfelt, D. W., M. J. Clement, and S. Safrin. 1990. Extrapulmonary pneumocystosis: Clinical features in human immunodeficiency virus infection. Medicine 69:392-398.
86. Noskin, G. A., and R. L. Murphy. 1991. Extrapulmonary infection with Pneumocystis carinii in patients receiving aerosolized pentamidine. Rev. Infect. Dis. 13:525. (Letter.)
87. Noskin, G. A., R. L. Murphy, W. G. Finn, and M. Timins. 1990. Extrapulmonary Pneumocystis cannii in patients receiving aerosolized pentamidine, abstr. Th.B.428, p. 229. In Abstracts of the Sixth International Conference on AIDS 1990. University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, Calif.
88. Pearl, G. S., and B. Sieger. 1996. Granulomatous Pneumocystis carinii myositis presenting as an intramuscular mass. Clin. Infect. Dis. 22:577-578.
89. Peglow, S. L., A. G. Smulian, M. J. Linke, C. L. Pogue, S. Nurre, J. Crisler, J. Phair, J. W. M. Gold, D. Armstrong, and P. D. Walzer. 1990. Serologic responses to specific Pneumocystis carinii antigens in health and disease. J. Infect. Dis. 161:296-306.
90. Peters, S. E., A. E. Wakefield, K. Sinclair, P. R. Millard, and J. M. Hopkin. 1992. A search for Pneumocystis carinii in post-mortem lungs by DNA amplification. J. Pathol. 166:195-198.
91. Pifer, L. L., W. T. Hughes, S. Stago, and D. Woods. 1978. Pneumocystis carinii infection: evidence for high prevalence in normal and immunosuppressed children. Pediatrics 61:35-41.
92. Pifer, L. L., C. P. Lattuada, C. C. Edwards, D. R. Woods, and D. R. Owens. 1984. Pneumocystis carinii infection in germ-free rats: implications for human patients. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 2:23-36.
93. Pilon, V. A., R. M. Echols, J. S. Celo, and S. L. Elmendorf. 1987. Disseminated Pneumocystis cannii infection in AIDS. N. Engl. J. Med. 316:1410-1411. (Letter.)
94. Piot, D., J. Gathe, G. W. del Junco, E. W. Stool, and J. R. Trujillo. 1989. Splenic pneumocystosis, abstr. M.B.P. 377, p. 284. In Abstracts of the 5th International Conference on AIDS 1989. International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, Canada.
95. Pixley, F. J., A. E. Wakefield, S. Banerji, and J. M. Hopkin. 1991. Mitochondrial gene sequences show fungal homology for Pneumocystis carinii. Mol. Microbiol. 5:1347-1351.
96. Poblete, R. B., K. Rodriguez, R. T. Foust, K. R. Reddy, and M. J. Saldana. 1989. Pneumocystis carinii hepatitis in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Ann. Intern. Med. 110:737-738.
97. Podzamczer, D., A. Martos, I. Ferrer, M. Santin, and F. Gudiol. 1993. Hepatic and pulmonary pneumocystosis during primary prophylaxis for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia with dapsone/pyrimethamine. Clin. Infect. Dis. 16:171. (Letter.)
98. Pomerantz, S. 1989. Disseminated pneumocystosis in a patient with AIDS on prophylaxis. AIDS Patient Care 3:13-15.
99. Pottratz, S. T., J. Paulsrud, J. S. Smith, and W. J. Martin. 1991. Pneumocystis carinii attachment to cultured lung cells by pneumocystis gp120, a fibronectin binding protein. J. Gin. Invest. 88:403-407.
100. Price, R. A., and W. T. Hughes. 1974. Histopathology of Pneumocystis carinii infestation and infection in malignant disease in childhood. Hum. Pathol. 5:737-752.
101. Ragan, M. A. 1989. Biochemical pathways and the phylogeny of the eukaryotes, p. 145-160. In B. Fernholm, K. Bremer, and H. Jornwall (ed.), The hierarchy of life. Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
102. Rahimi, S. A. 1974. Disseminated Pneumocystis carinii in thymic alymphoplasia. Arch. Pathol. 97:162-165.
103. Rao, N. A., P. L. Zimmerman, D. Boyer, J. Biswas, D. Causey, J. Beniz, and P. W. Nichols. 1989. A clinical, histopathologic, and electron microscopic study of Pneumocystis carinii choroiditis. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 107: 218-228.
104. Raviglione, M. C. 1990. Extrapulmonary pneumocystosis: the first 50 cases. Rev. Infect. Dis. 12:1127-1138.
105. Raviglione, M. C., G. R. Garner, and M. P. Mullen. 1988. Pneumocystis carinii in bone marrow. Ann. Intern. Med. 109:253. (Letter.)
106. Raviglione, M. C., P. Mariuz, J. Sugar, and M. P. Mullen. 1989. Extrapulmonary Pneumocystis infection. Ann. Intern. Med. 111:339. (Letter.)
107. Richie, T. L., E. Yamaguchi, N. A. Virani, B. D. Quinn, and R. E. Chaisson. 1989. Extrapulmonary Pneumocystis infection. Ann. Intern. Med. 111:339-340. (Letter.)
108. Rockley, P. F., C. M. Wilcox, M. Moynihan, K. Hewan-Lowe, and D. A. Schwartz. 1994. Splenic infection simulating lymphoma: an unusual presentation of disseminated Pneumocystis carinii infection. South. Med. J. 87:530-536.
109. Rosenblatt, M. A., C. Cunningham, S. Teich, and A. H. Friedman. 1990. Choroidal lesions in patients with AIDS. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 74: 610-614.
110. Rossi, J. F., A. Dubois, C. Bengler, C. Arich, C. Gervais, A. Delage, and C. Janbon. 1985. Pneumocystis carinii in bone marrow. Ann. Intern. Med. 102:868. (Letter.)
111. Rossi, J. F., J. J. Eledjam, A. Delage, C. Bengler, J. F. Schved, and J. Bonnafoux. 1990. Pneumocystis carinii infection of bone marrow in patients with malignant lymphoma and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Original report of three cases. Arch. Intern. Med. 150:450-452.
112. Ruffolo, J. J. 1994. Pneumocystis carinii cell structure, p. 25-43. In P. D. Walzer (ed.), Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia, 2nd ed. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, N.Y.
113. Ruffolo, J. J., M. T. Cushion, and P. D. Walzer. 1989. Ultrastructural observations on life cycle stages of Pneumocystis carinii. J. Protozool. 36: 53S-54S.
114. Sandler, E. D., J. M. Sandler, P. E. LeBoit, and B. M. Wenig. 1990. Pneumocystis carinii otitis media in AIDS: a case report and review of the literature regarding extrapulmonary pneumocystosis. Otolaryngology 103: 817-821.
115. Schinella, R. A., S. D. Breda, and P. E. Hammerschlag. 1987. Otic infection due to Pneumocystis carinii in an apparently healthy man with antibody to the human immunodeficiency virus. Ann. Intern. Med. 106: 399-400.
116. Sha, B. E., C. A. Benson, T. Deutsch, G. A. Noskin, R. L. Murphy, J. C. Pottage, Jr., W. G. Finn, S. I. Roth, and H. A. Kessler. 1992. Pneumocystis carinii choroiditis in patients with AIDS: clinical features, response to therapy, and outcome. J. Acquired Immune Defic. Syndr. 5:1051-1058.
117. Sinclair, K., A. E. Wakefield, S. Benerji, and J. M. Hopkin. 1991. Pneumocystis carinii organisms derived from rat and human hosts are genetically distinct. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 45:183-184.
118. Singer, C., D. Armstrong, P. P. Rosen, and D. Schottenfeld. 1975. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia: a cluster of eleven cases. Ann. Intern. Med. 82:772-777.
119. Smith, M. A., L. S. Hirschfield, G. Zahtz, and F. P. Siegal. 1988. Pneumocystis carinii otitis media. Am. J. Med. 85:745-746.
120. Sneed, S. R., C. F. Blodi, B. B. Berger, J. W. Speights, J. C. Folk, and T. A. Weingeist. 1990. Pneumocystis carinii choroiditis in patients receiving inhaled pentamidine. N. Engl. J. Med. 322:936-937.
121. Sparling, T. G., S. R. Dong, C. Hegedus, and D. R. Burdge. 1989. Aerosolized pentamidine and disseminated infection with Pneumocystis carinii. Ann. Intern. Med. 111:442.
122. Steigman, C. K., L. Pastore, C. H. Park, C. H. Fox, M. L. DeVinatea, D. H. Connor, and A. M. Macher. 1987. Case for diagnosis. AIDS. Mil. Med. 152:m1-m8.
123. Stringer, J. R., S. L. Stringer, J. Zhang, R. Baughman, A. G. Smulian, and M. L. Cushion. 1993. Molecular genetic distinction of Pneumocystis carinii from rats and humans. J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. 40:733-741.
124. Stringer, S. L., K. Hudson, M. A. Blase, P. D. Walzer, M. T. Cushion, and J. R. Stringer. 1989. Sequence from ribosomal RNA of Pneumocystis carinii compared to those of four fungi suggests an ascomycetous affinity. J. Protozool. 36:14S-16S.
125. Stringer, S. L., J. R. Stringer, M. A. Blase, P. D. Walzer, and M. T. Cushion. 1989. Pneumocystis carinii: sequence from ribosomal RNA implies a close relationship with fungi. Exp. Parasitol. 68:450-461.
126. Swofford, D. L., and G. L. Olsen. 1991. Phylogeny reconstruction, molecular systematics, p. 411-501. In D. M. Hillis and C. Moritz (ed.), Molecular systematics. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Mass.
127. Telzak, E. E., R. J. Cote, J. W. M. Gold, S. W. Campbell, and D. Armstrong. 1990. Extrapulmonary Pneumocystis carinii infections. Rev. Infect. Dis. 12: 380-386.
128. ul-Haque, A., S. B. Plattner, R. T. Cook, and M. N. Hart. 1987. Pneumocystis carinii taxonomy as viewed by electron microscopy. Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 87:504-510.
129. Unger, P. D., M. Rosenblum, and S. E. Krown. 1988. Disseminated Pneumocystis carinii infection in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Hum. Pathol. 19:113-116.
130. Vanek, J., and O. Jirovec. 1952. Parasitic pneumonia: interstitial plasma cell pneumonia of premature infants caused by Pneumocystis carinii. Zentralbl. Bakteriol. 158:120-127.
131. Vargas, S. L., W. T. Hughes, A. E. Wakefield, and H. S. Oz. 1995. Limited persistence in and subsequent elimination of Pneumocystis carinii from the lungs after P. carinii pneumonia. J. Infect. Dis. 172:506-510.
132. Wakabayashi, T., S. Oka, K. Shimada, I. Nakano, T. Iwatsubo, and S. Mori. 1992. Disseminated Pneumocystis carinii infection in a hemophiliac patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Acta Pathol. Jpn. 42: 262-266.
133. Wakefield, A. E. 1996. DNA sequences identical to Pneumocystis carinii f. sp. carinii and Pneumocystis carinii f. sp. hominis in samples of air spora. J. Clin. Microbiol. 34:1754-1759.
134. Wakefield, A. E., S. E. Peters, S. Banerji, P. D. Bridge, G. S. Hall, D. L. Hawksworth, L. A. Guiver, A. G. Allen, and J. M. Hopkin. 1992. Pneumocystis carinii shows DNA homology with the ustomycetous red yeast fungi. Mol. Microbiol. 6:1903-1911.
135. Wakefield, A. E., F. J. Pixley, and S. Banerji. 1990. Detection of Pneumocystis carinii with DNA amplification. Lancet 336:451-453.
136. Ward, D. J. 1989. Disseminated granulomatous pneumocystosis in a patient receiving aerosolized pentamidine prophylaxis, abstr. M.B.P. 378, p. 285. In Abstracts of the 5th International Conference on AIDS 1989. International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, Canada.
137. Wasserman, L., and P. Haghighi. 1992. Otic and ophthalmic pneumocystosis in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. 116:500-503.
138. Watanabe, J., H. Hori, K. Tanabe, and Y. Nakamura. 1989. Phylogenetic association of Pneumocystis carinii with the "Rhizopoda/Myxomycota/ Zygomycota group" indicated by comparison of 5S ribosomal RNA sequences. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 32:163-167.
139. Weller, R. 1955. Zur erzeugung von Pneumocystosen im tierversuch. Z. Kinderheilkd. 76:366-378.
140. Whitcup, S. M., R. M. Fenton, J. M. Pluda, M. D. DeSmet, R. B. Nussenblatt, and C.-C. Chan. 1992. Pneumocystis carinii and Mycobacterium aviumintracellulare infection of the choroid. Retina 12:331-335.
141. Witt, K., T. N. Nielsen, and J. Junge. 1991. Dissemination of Pneumocystis carinii in patients with AIDS. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 23:691-695.
142. Yoneda, K., and P. D. Walzer. 1983. Attachment of Pneumocystis carinii to type I alveolar cells studied by freeze-fracture electron microscopy. Infect. Immun. 40:812-815.
143. Zandanell, E. 1954. Pneumozystisbefund ausserhalb der lunge beiinterstitieller plasmazellularer pneumonia der sauglinge und fruhgerburten. Zentralbl. Allg. Pathol. Pathol. Anat. 92:74-80.