Chloroquine: Novel uses & manifestations

Indian Journal of Medical Research

Volumn 127, Issue 4, 2008, Pages 305-316

  Cooper, R G ^a   Magwere, T ^b  

^a BIRMINGHAM CITY UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Anti inflammatory; Antimalarial; Chloroquine; Malaria; Pharmacology; Toxicology

Indexed keywords

AMODIAQUINE; AMODIAQUINE PLUS ARTESUNATE; ANTIHISTAMINIC AGENT; ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENT; ANTIRETROVIRUS AGENT; ARTEMETHER PLUS BENFLUMETOL; ARTEMISININ DERIVATIVE; ARTESUNATE PLUS FANSIDAR; ARTESUNATE PLUS MEFLOQUINE; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; CHLOROQUINE; DIDANOSINE; DOXORUBICIN; FANSIDAR; HYDROXYUREA; INDINAVIR; MEFLOQUINE; PRIMAQUINE; QUININE; RITONAVIR; SAQUINAVIR; TRICYCLIC ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; ZIDOVUDINE;

ANTIMALARIAL ACTIVITY; BIOCHEMISTRY; DRUG ABSORPTION; DRUG BLOOD LEVEL; DRUG DOSE REGIMEN; DRUG METABOLISM; DRUG POTENTIATION; DRUG SYNTHESIS; DRUG TOLERABILITY; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; IMMUNOMODULATION; KIDNEY DISEASE; LOW DRUG DOSE; MALARIA; MALIGNANT NEOPLASTIC DISEASE; MONOTHERAPY; NONHUMAN; REVIEW; SINGLE DRUG DOSE; SKIN MANIFESTATION; VIRUS INFECTION;

ANTIMALARIALS; CHLOROQUINE; HUMANS; MALARIA; NEOPLASMS; VIRUS DISEASES;

EID: 51349112454     PISSN: 09715916     EISSN: 09715916     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (150)

1. Salomone S, Godfraind T. Drugs that reverse chloroquine resistance in malaria. Trends Pharmacol Sci 1990; 11: 475-6.
2. Veignie E, Moreau S. The mode of action of chloroquine. Non-weak base properties of 4-aminoquinolines and antimalarial effects on strains of Plasmodium. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 1991; 85: 229-37.
3. de Vries PJ, Oosterhuis B, van Boxtel CJ. Single-dose pharmacokinetics of chloroquine and its main metabolite in healthy volunteers. Drug Invest 1994; 8: 143-9.
4. Wetsteyn JCFM, de Vries PJ, Oosterhuis B, van Boxtel CJ. The pharmacokinetics of three multiple dose regimens of chloroquine: implications for malaria chemoprophylaxis. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1995; 39: 696-9.
5. Verhoef H, Hodgins E, Eggelte TA, Carter JY, Lema O, West CE, et al. Anti-malarial drug use among pre-school children in an area of seasonal malaria transmission in Kenya. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1999; 61: 770-5.
6. Titus EO. Recent developments in the understanding of the pharmacokinetics and mechanism of action of chloroquine. Ther Drug Monit 1989; 11: 369-79.
7. Augustijns P, Geusens P, Verbeke N. Chloroquine levels in blood during chronic treatment of patient with rheumatoid arthritis. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1992; 42: 429-33.
8. Augustijns P, Verbeke N. Stereoselective pharmacokinetic properties of chloroquine and de-ethyl-chloroquine in humans. Clin Pharmacokinet 1993; 24: 259-69.
9. Krishna S, White NJ. Pharmacokinetics of quinine, chloroquine and amodiaquine. Clinical implications. Clin Pharmacokinet 1996; 30: 263-99.
10. Meinαo IM, Sato EI, Andrade LEC, Fenaz MB, Atra E. Controlled trial with chloroquine diphosphate in systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 1996; 5: 237-41.
11. Abdi AY, Gustafsson LL, Ericsson O, Hellgren U. Handbook of drugs for tropical parasitic infections. 2nd ed. London: Taylor & Francis Ltd; 1995.
12. Karres I, Kremer JP, Dietl I, Steckholzer U, Jochum M, Ertel W. Chloroquine inhibits proinflammatory cytokine release into human whole blood. Am J Physiol 1998; 274: R1058-64.
13. Bruce-Chwatt LJ, editor. Chemotherapy of malaria. 2nd ed. WHO Monograph Series 27. Geneva: World Health Organization; 1981.
14. Radl S. From chloroquine to antineoplastic drugs? The story of antibacterial quinolones. Arch Pharm Med Chem Res 1996; 329: 115-9.
15. Sowunmi A. Disposition of oral quinine in African patients suffering from acute uncomplicated falciparum malaria. East Afr Med J 1996; 73: 519-23.
16. Munjeri O, Hodza P, Osim EE, Musabayane CT. An investigation into the suitability of amidated pectin hydrogel beads as a delivery matrix for chloroquine. J Pharm Sci 1998; 87: 905-8.
17. Pandey AV, Bisht H, Babbarwal VK, Srivastava J, Pandey KC, Chauhan VS. Mechanism of malarial haem detoxification inhibition by chloroquine. Biochem J 2001; 355: 333-8.
18. Snow RW, Craig M, Deichmann U, Marsh K. Estimating mortality, morbidity and disability due to malaria among Africa's non-pregnant population. Bull World Health Organ 1999: 77: 624-40.
19. Snow RW, Omumbo JA, Lowe B, Molyneux CS, Obiero JO, Palmer A, et al. Relation between severe malaria morbidity in children and level of Plasmodium falciparum transmission in Africa. Lancet 1997; 349: 1650-4.
20. Baird JK. Resurgent malaria at the millennium: control strategies in crisis. Drugs 2000; 59: 719-43.
21. Baird JK, Basri H, Subianto B, Fryauff DJ, McElroy PD, Leksana B, et al. Treatment of chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium vivax with chloroquine and primaquine or halofantrine. J Infec Dis 1995; 171: 1678-82.
22. Frappier F, Jossang A, Soudon J, Calvo F, Rasoanaivo P, Ratsimamanga-Urverg S, et al. Bisbenzylisoquinolines as modulators of chloroquine resistance in Plasmodium falciparum and multidrug resistance in tumor cells. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1996; 40: 1476-81.
23. Phillips-Howard PA Confronting the challenge of antimalarial drug resistance in Africa. Managing the introduction of new antimalarial drugs to Africa: theory and practice. PPH Antimal Drug Policy 1998; 27: 1-24.
24. Molyneux DH, Floyd K, Barnish G, Fevre EM. Transmission control and drug resistance in malaria: a crucial interaction. Parasitol Today 1999; 15: 238-40.
25. White NJ, Nosten F, Looareesuwan S, Watkins WM, Marsh K, Snow RW, et al. Averting a malaria disaster. Lancet 1999; 353: 1965-7.
26. Shapira A. The resistance of falciparum malaria in Africa to 4-aminoquinolines and antifolates. Scand J Infect Dis 1990; 75 (Suppl): 1-64.
27. Bloland PB, Lackritz EM, Kazembe PN, Were JBO, Steketee R, Campbell CC. Beyond chloroquine: implications of drug resistance for evaluating malaria therapy efficacy and treatment policy in Africa. J Infect Dis 1993; 167: 932-7.
28. Karbwang J, Harinasuta T. Overview: clinical pharmacology of antimalarials. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 1992; 23 (Suppl 4): 95-109.
29. Abuaku BK, Koram KA, Binka FN. Antimalarial drug use among caregivers in Ghana. Afr Hlth Sci 2004; 4: 171-7.
30. Basco LK, Ringwald P, Le Bras J. In vivo-in vitro test for chloroquine potentiation by cyproheptadine against Plasmodium falciparum. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1991; 85: 206-7.
31. Peters W, Ekong R, Robinson BL, Warhurst DC, Pan X-Q. Antihistaminic drugs that reverse chloroquine resistance in Plasmodium falciparum. Lancet 1989; 2: 334-5.
32. Levander OA, Ager AL Jr, Morris VC, May RG. Menhaden-fish oil in a vitamin E-deficient diet: protection against chloroquine-resistant malaria in mice. Am J Clin Nutr 1989; 50: 1237-9.
33. Bitonti AJ, Dumont JA, Bush TL, Edwards ML, Stemerick DM, McCann PP, et al. Bis(benzyl)polyamine analogs inhibit the growth of chloroquine-resistant human malaria parasites (Plasmodium falciparum) in vitro and in combination with α-difluoromethylornithine cure murine malaria. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1989; 86: 651-5.
34. 6 as a potential antimalarial agent. J Label Compd Radiopharm 1999; 42: 287-92.
35. McIntosh HM, Greenwood BM. Chloroquine or amodiaquine combined with sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine as a treatment for uncomplicated malaria - a systematic review. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 1998; 92: 265-70.
36. Warhurst DC. Drug resistance in Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Infection 1999; 27 (Suppl. 2): S55-8.
37. WHO Antimalarial drug combination therapy: Report of WHO technical consultation, 4-5 April. World Health Organization (WHO/CDS/RBM/ 2001.35), Geneva, Switzerland; 2001.
38. Facts on ACTs (Artemisinin-based combination therapies). January update. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland; 2006. Available at: http://www.rbm.who.int/cmc_upload/0/000/015/364/RBMInfosheet_9.htm
39. Adelusi SA, Salako LA. Tissue and blood concentrations of chloroquine following chronic administration in the rat. J Pharm Pharmacol 1982; 34: 733-5.
40. Gustafsson LL, Walker O, Alvαn G, Beermann B, Estevez F, Gleisner L, et al. Disposition of chloroquine in man after single intravenous and oral doses. Br J Pharmacol 1983: 15: 471-9.
41. Minker E, Ivan J. Experimental and clinicopharmacological study of rectal absorption of chloroquine. Acta Phys Academiae Sci Hung 1991; 77: 237-48.
42. Walker O, Dawodu AH, Adeyokunnu AA, Salako LA, Alvαn G. Plasma chloroquine and desethylchloroquine concentrations in children during and after chloroquine treatment for malaria. Br J Pharmacol 1983; 16: 701-5.
43. McChesney EW, Banks WF Jr., Fabian RJ. Tissue distribution of chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine, and desethylchloroquine in the rat. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1967; 10: 501-13.
44. White NJ. Antimalarial pharmacokinetics and treatment regimens. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1992: 34: 1-10.
45. Desjardins RE, Doberstyn EB, Wernsdorfer WH. The treatment and prophylaxis of Malaria. In: Wernsdorfer WH, McGregor I, editors. Malaria: Principles and practice of malariology. Vol. I. London: Churchill Livingstone; 1988 p. 827-59.
46. Pussard E, Verdier F. Antimalarial 4-aminoquinolines: mode of action and pharmacokinetics. Fund Clin Pharmacol 1994; 8: 1-17.
47. Walker O, Alvαn G, Beerman B, Gustafsson LL, Lindstöm BL. Sjöqvist F. The pharmacokinetics of chloroquine in healthy volunteers. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1982; 14 (Suppl): 624.
48. Frisk-Holmberg M, Bergkvist Y, Domeij-Nyberg B, Hellstrom L, Jasson F. Chloroquine serum concentration and side-effects: evidence for dose-dependent kinetics. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1979; 25: 345-50.
49. Fitch CD, Cai GZ, Chen YF, Ryerse JS. Relationship of chloroquine-induced redistribution of a neutral aminopeptidase to hemoglobin accumulation in malaria parasites. Arch Biochem Biophys 2003; 410: 296-306.
50. Houzé P, de Reynies A, Baud FJ, Benatar MF, Pays M. Simultaneous determination of chloroquine and its three metabolites in human plasma, whole blood and urine by ion-pair high-performance liquid chromatography. J Chromatogr 1992; 574: 305-12.
51. Ducharme J, Farinotti R. Clinical pharmacokinetics and metabolism of chloroquine. Focus on recent advancements. Clin Pharmacokinet 1996; 31: 257-74.
52. Kim KA, Park JY, Lee JS, Lim, S. Cytochrome P450 2C8 and CYP3A4/5 are involved in chloroquine metabolism in human liver microsomes. Arch Pharm Res 2003; 26: 631-7.
53. Projean D, Baune B, Farinotti R, Flinois JP, Beaune P, Taburet AM, et al. In vitro metabolism of chloroquine: identification of CYP2C8, CYP3A4, and CYP2D6 as the main isoforms catalyzing N-desethylchloroquine formation. Drug Metab Disposition 2003; 31: 748-54.
54. Aderounmu AF. In vitro assessment of the antimalarial activity of chloroquine and its major metabolites. Am J Trop Med Parasitol 1984; 78: 581-5.
55. Kuroda K. Detection and distribution of chloroquine metabolites in human tissues. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1962; 137: 156-61.
56. McChesney EW, Conway WD, Banks WF, Rogers JE, Shekosky JM. Studies of the metabolism of some compounds of the 4-amino-7-chloroquinoline series. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1966; 151: 482-93.
57. Adjepon-Yamoah KK, Ofori-Adjei D, Woolhouse NM, Lindström B. Whole-blood single-dose-kinetics of chloroquine and desethylchloroquine in Africans. Ther Drug Monit 1986; 8: 195-9.
58. Musabayane CT, Ndhlovu CE, Mamutse G, Bwititi P, Balment RJ. Acute chloroquine administration increases renal sodium excretion. J Trop Med Hyg 1993; 96: 305-10.
59. Musabayane CT, Ndhlovu CE, Balment RJ. The effects of oral chloroquine administration on kidney function. Renal Fail 1994; 16: 221-8.
60. Musabayane CT, Windle RJ, Forling ML, Balment RJ. Arginine vasopressin mediates the chloroquine induced increase in renal sodium excretion. Trop Med Int Health 1996; 1: 542-50.
61. Back DJ, Purba HS, Park BK, Ward SA, Orme ML. Effect of chloroquine and primaquine on antipyrine metabolism. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1983; 16: 497-502.
62. Gustafsson LL, Lindström B, Grahnén A, Alvαn G. Chloroquine excretion following malaria prophylaxis. Br J Clin Chem 1987; 24: 221-4.
63. Knox JM. Owens DW. The chloroquine mystery. Arch Dermatol 1966; 94: 205-14.
64. Sofola OA, Olude IO, Adegoke F. The effects of chronic chloroquine toxicity on blood pressure of rats. J Trop Med Hyg 1981; 84: 249-52.
65. Chesney RW, Budreau AM. Chloroquine, a novel inhibitor of amino acid transport by rat renal brush border membrane vesicles. Amino Acids 1995; 8: 141-58.
66. Ogilvie KM, Lee S, Weiss B, Rivier C. Mechanisms mediating the influence of alcohol on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis responses to immune and non-immune signals. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1998; 22: 2435-75.
67. Novoa E, Rodrigo R. Renal handling of electrolytes and (Na+K)-ATPase activity after unilateral nephrectomy during long-term ethanol feeding. Acta Physiol Pharmacol Ther Latinoamer 1989; 39: 15-26.
68. Ahmed MH, Ashton N, Balment RJ. Renal function in a rat model of analgesic nephropathy: effect of chloroquine. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2003; 305: 123-30.
69. Musabayane CT, Cooper RG, Osim E, Balment RJ. Renal electrolyte and fluid handling in the rat following chloroquine and/or ethanol administration. Gen Pharmacol - Vasc Syst 2000; 34: 43-51.
70. Musabayane CT, Cooper RG, Prasada Rao PVV, Balment RJ. Effects of ethanol on the changes in renal fluid and electrolyte handling and kidney morphology induced by long-term chloroquine administration to rats. Alcohol 2000; 22: 129-38.
71. Ahmed MH, Osman MM. Why does chloroquine impair renal function? Chloroquine may modulate the renal tubular response to vasopressin either directly by inhibiting cyclic AMP generation, or indirectly via nitric oxide. Med Hypotheses 2007; 68: 140-3.
72. Ahmed MH. Insulin resistance and nitric oxide and associated renal injury: innocent bystanders or accessories to the crime'? NZ Med J 2006; 119: U2112.
73. Noiri E, Peresleni T, Miller F, Goligorsky MS. In vivo targeting of inducible NO synthase with oligodeoxynucleotides protects rat kidney against ischemia. J Clin Invest 1996; 97: 2377-83.
74. Ling H, Edelstein C, Gengaro P, Meng X, Lucia S, Knotek M, et al. Attenuation of renal ischemia-reperfusion injury in inducible nitric oxide synthase knockout mice. Am J Physiol 1999; 277: F383-90.
75. Cooper RG, Musabayane CT. The acute effects of combined chloroquine and ethanol on renal electrolyte handling. Proceedings of the 2nd International MIM African Malaria Conference; 1999, March 14-19; Durban, South Africa; 1999. p. C-42-3.
76. Cooper RG, Musabayane CT. Effects of ethanol on plasma chloroquine, arginine vasopressin (AVP) concentrations and renal hydro-electrolyte handling in the rat. Renal Fail 2000; 22: 785-98.
77. Musabayane CT, Musvibe A, Wenyika J, Munjeri O, Osim EE. Chloroquine influences renal function in rural Zimbabweans with acute transient fever. Renal Fail 1999; 21: 189-97.
78. +-ATPase in opossum kidney cells. Am J Physiol-Renal Physiol 1999; 277: F859-65.
79. Kang DG, Kim JW, Lee J. Effects of nitric oxide synthesis inhibition on the Na, K-ATPase activity in the kidney. Pharmacol Res 2000; 41: 121-5.
80. Ghigo D, Aldieri E, Todde R, Costamagna C, Garbarino G, Pescarmona G, et al. Chloroquine stimulates nitric oxide synthesis in murine, porcine, and human endothelial cells. J Clin Invest 1998; 102: 595-605.
81. Cooper RG, Osim E, Musabayane CT. Ethanol reduces the natriuretic effect of chloroquine. In: Samkange C, editor. Proceedings of the 1997 Annual Medical Research Day; 1997 October 25; Harare, Zimbabwe; 1997. p. 9.
82. Abraham R, Hendy R, Grasso P. Formation of myeloid bodies in rat liver lysosomes after chloroquine administration. Exp Mol Path 1968; 9: 212-29.
83. Wisner-Gebhart AM, Brabec RK, Gray RH. Morphometric studies of chloroquine-induced changes in hepatocytic organelles in the rat. Exp Mol Path 1980; 33: 144-52.
84. Ericsson JL. Mechanism of cellular autophagy. In: Dingle JT, Fells HB, editors. Lysosomes in biology and pathology, Vol. 2. New York: Wiley; 1969. p. 345-94.
85. Schneider P, Korolenko TA, Busch U. A review of drug-induced lysosomal disorders of the liver in man and laboratory animals. Microsc Res Tech 1997; 36: 253-75.
86. Allison AC, Young MR. Uptake of dyes and drugs by living cells in culture. Life Sci 1964; 3: 1407-14.
87. Maclntyre AC, Cutler DJ. Kinetics of chloroquine uptake into isolated rat hepatocytes. J Pharm Sci 1993; 82: 592-600.
88. Weissmann G. Lysosomes and joint disease. Arthritis Rheum 1966; 9: 834-40.
89. Zhao H, Cai Y, Santi S, Lafrenie R, Lee H. Chloroquine-mediated radiosensitization is due to the destabilization of the lysosomal membrane and subsequent induction of cell death by necrosis. Radial Res 2005; 164: 250-7.
90. Colombo MI, Bertini F. Properties of binding sites for chloroquine in liver lysosomal membranes. J Cell Physiol 1988; 137: 598-602.
91. Blouin A, Bollender RP, Weibel ER. Distribution of organelles and membranes between hepatocytes and nonhepatocytes in the rat liver parenchyma. A stereological study. J Cell Biol 1977; 72: 441-55.
92. Wibo M, Poole B. Protein degradation in cultured cells. II. The uptake of chloroquine by rat fibroblasts and the inhibition of cellular protein degradation and cathepsin B1. J Cell Biol 1974; 63: 430-40.
93. Limet JN, Quintart J, Schneider YJ, Courtoy PJ. Receptor-mediated endocytosis of polymeric IgA and galactosylated serum albumin in rat liver. Evidence for intracellular ligand sorting and identification of distinct endosomal compartments. Eur J Biochem 1985; 146: 539-48.
94. Singh KP, Krause W, David H, von Zglinickj J. Effects of chloroquine on hepatocyte organelles in rat. Exp Pathol 1985; 28: 119-24.
95. Deepalakshmi PD, Parasakthy K, Shanthi S, Devaraj NS. Effect of chloroquine on rat liver mitochondria. Indian J Exp Biol 1994; 32: 797-9.
96. Hostetler KY, Richman DD. Studies on the mechanism of phospholipid storage induced by amantadine and chloroquine in Madin Darby canine kidney cells. Biochem Pharmacol 1982; 31: 3795-9.
97. Prasada Rao PVV, Cooper RG, Musabayane C. Histopathological changes in kidneys of rats exposed to chloroquine and ethanol in combination. In: Sharp B, editor. Proceedings of the 2nd International MIM African Malaria Conference; 1999. March 14-19; Durban, South Africa; 1999. p. C-140-1.
98. Teixeira RA, Filho MM, Benvenuti LA, Costa R, Pedrosa AA, Nishióka SAD. Cardiac damage from chronic use of chloroquine. A case report and review of the literature. Arq Bras Cardiol 2002; 79: 85-8.
99. Cotton DW, Sutorius AH. Inhibiting effect of some antimalarial substances on glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase. Nature 1971; 233: 197.
100. Emerole GO, Thabrew MI. Changes in some rat hepatic microsomal components induced by prolonged administration of chloroquine. Biochem Pharmacol 1983; 32: 3005-9.
101. Leffler BM, Bohn E, Hesse B, Kunze H. Effects of antimalarial drugs on phospholipase A and lysophospholipase activities in plasma membrane, mitochondrial, microsomal and cytosolic subcellular fractions of rat liver. Biochim Biophys Acta 1985; 835: 448-55.
102. Katewa SD, Katyare SS. Treatment with antimalarials adversely affects the oxidative energy metabolism in rat liver mitochondria. Drug Chem Toxicol 2004; 27: 41-53.
103. Alisky JM, Chertkova EL, Iczkowski KA. Drug interactions and pharmacogenetic reactions are the basis for chloroquine and mefloquine-induced psychosis. Med Hypotheses 2006; 67: 1090-94.
104. Magwere T, Naik YS, Hasler JA. Effects of chloroquine treatment on antioxidant enzymes in rat liver and kidney. Free Radical Biol Med 1997; 22: 321-7.
105. Magwere T, Hasler JA. The role of xenobiotics in the modulation of antioxidant status and susceptibility to oxidative damage. In: Bahorun T, Gurib-Fakim A, editors. Molecular and therapeutic aspects of Redox biochemistry, London: OICA International (UK) Limited; 2003. p. 78-86.
106. Toler SM. Oxidative stress plays an important role in the pathogenesis of drug-induced retinopathy. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2004; 229: 607-15.
107. Farombi EO. Genotoxicity of chloroquine in rat liver cells: protective role of free radical scavengers. Cell Biol Toxicol 2006; 22: 159-67.
108. Chen TH, Chang PC, Chang MC, Lin YF, Lee HM. Chloroquine induces the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase in C6 glioma cells. Pharmacol Res 2005; 51: 329-36.
109. Ahmed MH. Nitric oxide might be involved in the pathogenesis of chloroquine-induced lipidosis. Clin Ther 2005; 27: 509-10.
110. Park YC, Pae HO, Yoo JC, Choi BM, Jue DM, Chung HT. Chloroquine inhibits inducible nitric oxide synthase expression in murine peritoneal macrophages. Pharmacol Toxicol 1999; 85: 188-91.
111. Hrabak A, Sefrioui H, Vercruysse V, Temesi A, Bajor T, Vray B. Action of chloroquine on nitric oxide production and parasite killing by macrophages. Eur J Pharmacol 1998; 354: 83-90.
112. + cells in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 2007; 16: 89-94.
113. van den Borne BE, Dijkmans BA, de Rooij HH, le Cessie S, Verweij CL. Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine equally affect tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin 6, and interferon-gamma production by peripheral blood mononuclear cells. J Rheumatol 1997; 24: 55-60.
114. Park J, Kwon D, Choi C, Oh JW, Benveniste EN. Chloroquine induces activation of nuclear factor-kappaB and subsequent expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines by human astroglial cells. J Neurochem 2003; 84: 1266-74.
115. Weber SM, Levitz SM. Chloroquine interferes with lipopolysaccharide-induced TNF-alpha gene expression by a nonlysosomotropic mechanism. J Immunol 2000; 165: 1534-40.
116. Zhu X, Ertel W, Ayala A, Morrison MH, Perrin MM, Chaudry IH. Chloroquine inhibits macrophage tumour necrosis factor-alpha mRNA transcription. Immunology 1993; 80: 122-6.
117. Weber SM, Chen JM, Levitz SM. Inhibition of mitogen-activated protein kinase signalling by chloroquine. J Immunol 2002: 168: 5303-9.
118. Jang CH, Choi JH, Byun MS, Juc DM. Chloroquine inhibits production of TNF-alpha, IL-1beta and IL-6 from lipopolysaccharide-stimulated human monocytes/macrophages by different modes. Rheumatology 2006; 45: 703-10.
119. Jeong JY, Choi JW, Jeon KI, Jue DM. Chloroquine decreases Cell-surface expression of tumour necrosis factor receptors in human histiocytic U-937 cells. Immunology, 2002; 105: 83-91.
120. Hong Z, Jiang Z, Liangxi W, Guofu D, Ping L, Yongling L, et al. Chloroquine protects mice from challenge with CpG ODN and LPS by decreasing proinflammatory cytokine release. Int Immunopharmacol 2004; 4: 223-34.
121. Wozniacka A, Lesiak A, Narbutt J, McCauliffe DP, Sysa-Jedrzejowska A. Chloroquine treatment influences proinflammatory cytokine levels in systemic lupus erythematosus patients. Lupus 2006; 15: 268-75.
122. Nishimura M, Hidaka N, Akaza T, Tadokoro K, Juji T. Immunosuppressive effects of chloroquine: potential effectiveness for treatment of post-transfusion graft-versus-host disease. Transfusion Medicine 1998; 8: 209-14.
123. Seth P, Mani H, Singh AK, Banaudha KK, Madhavan S, Sidhu GS, et al. Acceleration of viral replication and up-regulation of cytokine levels by antimalarials: implications in malaria-endemic areas. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1999; 61: 180-6.
124. Parris GE. The timing is right: Evolution of AIDS-causing HIV strains are consistent with history of chloroquine use. Med Hypotheses 2006; 67: 1258-9.
125. Parris GE. Update on hypothesis linking chloroquine-resistant malaria to disease-causing HIV. Med Hypotheses 2006; 67: 670-1.
126. Parris GE. AIDS: caused by development of resistance to drugs in a non-target intracellular parasite. Med Hypotheses 2007; 68: 151-7.
127. Chen X, Xiao B, Xu H, Shi W, Gao K, Rao J. Procedure and clinical assessments of malariotherapy: recent experience in 20 HIV patients. Chin Med J (Engl.) 2003; 116: 1016-21.
128. Heimlich HJ, Chen XP, Xiao BQ, Liu SG, Lu YH, Spletzer EG, et al. Malariotherapy for HIV patients. Mech Ageing Dev 1997; 93: 79-85.
129. Paton NI, Aboulhab J, Karin F. Hydroxychloroquine, hydroxycarbamide, and didanosine as economic treatment for HIV-1. Lancet 2002; 359: 1667-8.
130. Omstein ME, Sperber K. The anti-inflammatory and antiviral effects of hydroxychloroquine in two patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and active inflammatory arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 1996; 39: 157-61.
131. Sperber K, Louie M, Kraus T, Proner J, Sapira E, Lin S, et al. Hydroxychloroquine treatment of patients with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Clin Ther 1995; 17: 622-36.
132. Pardridge WM, Yang J, Diagne A. Chloroquine inhibits HIV-1 replication in human peripheral blood lymphocytes. Immunol Lett 1998; 64: 45-7.
133. Savarino A, Gennero L, Chen HC, Serrano D, Malavasi F, Boelaert JR, et al. Anti-HIV effects of chloroquine: mechanisms of inhibition and spectrum of activity. AIDS 2001; 15: 2221-9.
134. Savarino A, Gennero L, Sperber K, Boelaert JR. The anti-HIV-1 activity of chloroquine. J Clin Viral 2001; 20: 131-5.
135. Savarino A, Boelaert JR, Cassone A, Majori G, Cauda R. Effects of chloroquine on viral infections: an old drug against today's diseases? Lancet Infect Dis 2003; 3: 722-7.
136. Boelaert JR, Sperber K, Piette J. Chloroquine exerts an additive in vitro anti-HIV type 1 effect when associated with didanosine and hydroxyurea. AIDS Res Hum Retrovirus 1999; 15: 1241-7.
137. Semrau K, Kuhn L, Kasonde P, Sinkala M, Kankasa C, Shutes E, et al. Impact of chloroquine on viral load in breast milk. Trop Med Int Health 2006; 11: 800-3.
138. Neely M, Kalyesubula I, Bagenda D, Myers C, Olness K. Effect of chloroquine on human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) vertical transmission. Afr Health Sci 2003; 3: 61-7.
139. de Clercq E. Potential antivirals and antiviral strategies against SARS coronavirus infections. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2006; 4: 291-302.
140. Djordevic B, Lange CS. Rotman M. Potentiation of radiation lethality in mouse melanoma cells by mild hyperthermia and chloroquine. Melanoma Res 1992; 2: 321-6.
141. Fan C, Wang W, Zhao B, Zhang S, Miao J. Chloroquine inhibits cell gtowth and induces cell death in A549 lung cancer cells. Bioorg Med Chem 2006; 14: 3218-22.
142. Vezmar M, Georges E. Direct binding of chloroquine to the multidrug resistance protein (MRP): possible role for MRP in chloroquine drug transport and resistance in tumor cells. Biochem Pharmacol 1998; 56: 733-42.
143. Vezmar M, Georges E. Reversal of MRP-mediated doxorubicin resistance with quinoline-based drugs. Biochem Pharmacol 2000; 59: 1245-52.
144. Kvackajova-Kipcka J, Barancik M, Breier A. Drug transporters and their role in multidrug resistance of neoplastic cells. Gen Physiol Biophys 2001; 20: 215-37.
145. Rustogi A, Munshi A, Jalali R. Unexpected skin reaction induced by radiotherapy after chloroquine use. Lancet Oncol 2006; 7: 608-9.
146. Savarino A, Lucia MB, Giordano F, Cauda R. Risks and benefits of chloroquine use in anticancer strategies. Lancet Oncol 2006; 7: 792-3.
147. Kublin JG, Cortese JF, Njunju EM, Mukadarn RA, Wirima JJ, Kazembe PN, et al. Re-emergence of chloroquine-sensitive Plasmodium falciparum malaria after cessation of chloroquine use in Malawi. J Infect Dis 2003; 187: 1870-5.
148. Obua C, Ntale M, Lundblad MS, Mahindi M, Gustafsson LL, Ogwal-Okeng JW, et al. Pharmacokinetic interactions between chloroquine, sulfadoxine and pyrimethamine and their bioequivalence in a generic fixed-dose combination in healthy volunteers in Uganda. Afr Health Sci 2006; 6: 86-92.
149. Laufer MK, Thesing PC, Eddington ND, Masonga R, Dzinjalamala FK, Takala SL, et al. Return of chloroquine antimalarial efficacy in Malawi. N Engl J Med 2006; 355: 1959-66.
150. Lelievre J, Berry A, Benoit-Vical F. Artemisinin and chloroquine: do mode of action and mechanism of resistance involve the same protagonists? Curr Opin Investig Drugs 2007; 8: 117-24.