Deviant democratization in India

Democratization

Volumn 15, Issue 4, 2008, Pages 733-749

  McMillan, Alistair ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

Democratic consolidation; Democratic transition; Democratization; India

Indexed keywords

EID: 48349098581     PISSN: 13510347     EISSN: 1743890X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13510340802191094     Document Type: Article

References (66)

1. This is a revised version of a paper presented at the Conference on Deviant Democracies: Democratization Against All Odds, Leiden University, the Netherlands, 29-30 September 2006. The special issue editors have done a considerable amount of work (in terms of both substance and editing) to improve further versions and to make this article as it stands now. In particular, Renske Doorenspleet and Cas Mudde answered all queries from the journal editors and did all of the final editing. Finally, the quality of this paper benefited tremendously from comments by the conference participants as well.
2. Iain McLean, 'Democratization and Economic Liberalization: Which is the Chicken and Which is the Egg', Democratization, Vol. 1, No. 1 (1994), p. 29.
3. See Renske Doorenspleet and Petr Kopecký, 'Against the Odds: Deviant Cases of Democratization', Democratization, Vol. 15, No. 4 (2008).
4. Arend Lijphart, 'The Puzzle of Indian Democracy: A Consociational Interpretation', American Political Science Review, Vol. 90, No. 2 (1996), p. 258.
5. Larry Diamond, 'Introduction: Persistence, Erosion, Breakdown', in Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymour Martin Lipset (eds), Democracy in Democratic Countries: Asia (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1989), p. 1.
6. For more information about 'deviant cases' in this sense, see: Doorenspleet and Kopecký (note 3).
7. See for description of modernization theory: Doorenspleet and Kopecký (note 3). See also Chapter 5 in Renske Doorenspleet, Democratic Transitions: Exploring the Structural Sources during the Fourth Wave (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2005).
8. Seymour Martin Lipset, 'Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy', American Political Science Review, Vol. 53, No. 1 (1959), p. 75.
9. Barbara Geddes, 'What Do We Know about Democratization after Twenty Years', Annual Review of Political Science, Vol. 2 (1999), p. 117.
10. Lipset (note 8), p. 101.
11. Tatu Vanhanen, Prospects of Democracy: A Study of 172 Countries (London: Routledge, 1997).
12. Ibid., p. 143.
13. James Manor, 'Why Liberal and Representative Politics Emerged in India', Political Studies, Vol. 38 (1990), p. 459.
14. See Tade O. Okediji, 'The Dynamics of Ethnic Fragmentation: A Proposal for an Expanded Measurement Index', The American Journal of Economics and Sociology, Vol. 64, No. 2 (2005), p. 655, Tables 1 and 3.
15. Adam Przeworski, Michael E Alvarez, José Antonio Cheibub, and Fernando Limongi, Democracy and Development: Political Institutions and Well-being in the World, 1950-1990 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 87.
16. Arend Lijphart, Patterns of Democracy: Government Forms and Performance in Thirty-Six Countries (London: Yale University Press, 1999), p. 263.
17. Robert A. Dahl, Democracy and Its Critics (London: Yale University Press, 1989), p. 239.
18. Consequently, Arend Lijphart excluded India in his study Democracies: Patterns of Majoritarian and Consensus Government in Twenty-One Countries (London: Yale University Press, 1984), although he classified it as becoming a democracy in 1977, in his updated study Patterns of Democracy (1999). Similarly, Samuel Huntington places India in his 'third wave' of democratization, starting from the late 1970s.
19. Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991).
20. Robert L. Hardgrave discusses the violent struggle in Assam, and conflict in the Punjab and Jammu and Kashmir. Robert L. Hardgrave Jr., 'India: The Dilemmas of Diversity', in Larry Diamond and Marc F. Platter (eds), Nationalism, Ethnic Conflict and Democracy (London: The John Hopkins University Press, 1994), pp. 71-85. Subir Bhaumik presents an account of the situation in the North East which warns that the region may 'degenerate into another Bosnia and Colombia rolled into one, where ethnic hostility and free flow of narcotics, dependence on gun-power by the state and communities will distort the region's politics, society and economy beyond repair'.
21. Subir Bhaumik, 'North-East India: The Evolution of a Post-Colonial Region', in Partha Chatterjee (ed.), Wages of Freedom: Fifty Years of the Indian Nation-State (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 327.
22. Myron Weiner, The Indian Paradox: Essays in Indian Politics (New Delhi: Sage, 1989).
23. Subrata Kumar Mitra, 'Effects of Institutional Arrangements on Political Stability in South Asia', Annual Review of Political Science, Vol. 2 (1999), p. 423.
24. Sumit Ganguly, 'Introduction', in Sumit Ganguly, Larry Diamond, and Marc F. Plattner (eds), The State of India's Democracy (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007), p. ix.
25. See, for instance, Meghnad Desai, 'Why Is India a Democracy?', in Meghnad Desai and Aitzaz Ahsan (eds), Divided by Democracy (New Delhi: Lotus Collection, 2005)
26. Vicky Randall, 'Why Have the Political Trajectories of India and China Been Different?', in David Potter, David Goldblatt, Margaret Kiloh, and Paul Lewis (eds), Democratization (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1997), pp. 204-8
27. Richard Sisson, 'Culture and Democratization in India', in Larry Diamond (ed.), Political Culture and Democracy in Developing Countries (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1994), pp. 29-58.
28. Ashutosh Varshney, 'Why Democracy Survives', Journal of Democracy, Vol. 9, No. 3 (1998), p. 40.
29. Sir Penderel Moon, The British Conquest and Dominion of India (London: Duckworth, 1989), p. 867.
30. UK Government Command Paper 9109, Report on Indian Constitutional Reforms (London: HMSO, 1918).
31. Gita Subrahmanyam, 'Ruling Continuities: Colonial Rule, Social Forces and Path Dependence in British India and Africa', Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, Vol. 44, No. 1 (2006), p. 87.
32. D. A. Low, 'Congress and "Mass Contacts", 1936-1937: Ideology, Interests, and Conflict Over the Basis of Party Representation', in Richard Sisson and Stanley Wolpert (eds), Congress and Indian Nationalism: The Pre-Independence Phase (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1988), p. 153.
33. Hardgrave (note 19), p. 71.
34. Sugata Bose and Ayesha Jalal describe the deliberate ambiguity of Jinnah's proposals for a constitutional settlement. Even in 1942, 'A "Pakistan" that might mean the division of the Punjab and Bengal remained a distant thunder.' Sugata Bose and Ayesha Jalal, Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy, 2nd ed. (London: Routledge, 2004), pp. 144-5.
35. There was a move, supported by Gandhi and Jinnah, to create a united and independent Bengal. As late as 28 May 1947 Mountbatten recorded two alternative statements: Broadcast 'A' to be used if Bengal was to be partitioned; Broadcast 'B' if Bengal to remain unified (Ibid, p. 151). The scheme was vetoed by the Congress leadership.
36. Rochana Bajpai, 'Constituent Assembly Debates and Minority Rights', Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 33, Nos. 33-34 (2000), pp. 2210-2.
37. Bose and Jalal (note 29), chapter 18.
38. Ibid., p. 177.
39. Gandhi had taken a back seat in the negotiations over a constitutional settlement. As early as 10 June 1928, he proclaimed: 'I am concentrating my attention upon the means of attainment of swaraj [self rule]. Neither the Statutory Commission nor constitution-making appeals to me as part of the means.' Judith Brown, Gandhi and Civil Disobedience: The Mahatma in Indian Politics 1928-34 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), p. 27.
40. Varshney (note 24), p. 39.
41. Apurbu Kundu, Militarism in India: The Army and Civil Society in Consensus (New York: St Martin's, 1998), pp. 76-7.
42. Manor (note 13), p. 33.
43. In Hyderabad, the Muslim ruler of a largely Hindu population was reluctant to accede to Congress domination; in Jammu and Kashmir, the Hindu ruler of a predominantly Muslim territory sought independence, until he was forced to ask for support from India after incursions from Pakistan.
44. See for more analyses of this factor: Renske Doorenspleet and Cas Mudde, 'Upping the Odds; Deviant Democracies vs. Theories of Democratization', Democratization, Vol. 15, No. 4 (2008).
45. Lijphart (note 4).
46. Ibid., p. 260.
47. Ibid., pp. 262-3.
48. Steven Ian Wilkinson, 'India, Consociational Theory, and Ethnic Violence', Asian Survey, Vol. 40, No. 5 (2000), pp. 767-91.
49. Ibid., pp. 777-8
50. Katharine Adeney, 'Constitutional Centring: Nation Formation and Consociational Federalism in India and Pakistan', Commonwealth & Comparative Politics, Vol. 40, No. 3 (2002), p. 25.
51. Ian Lustick, 'Stability in Deeply Divided Societies: Consociationalism versus Control', World Politics, Vol. 31, No. 3 (1979), pp. 325-44.
52. Wilkinson (note 43), p. 770.
53. Adeney (note 44), p. 25.
54. Barrington Moore Jr., Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1966), chapter 6.
55. Atul Kohli, 'Interpreting India's Democracy: A State-Society Framework', in Atul Kohli (ed.), India's Democracy: An Analysis of Changing State-Society Relations (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990), p. 3.
56. Manor (note 14), pp. 30-1.
57. Katherine Adeney and Andrew Wyatt, 'Democracy in South Asia: Getting beyond the Structure-Agency Dichotomy', Political Studies, Vol. 52, No. 1 (2004), p. 9.
58. Stuart Corbridge and John Harris, Reinventing India: Liberalization, Hindu Nationalism and Popular Democracy (Cambridge: Polity, 2000), p. 55.
59. Kanchan Chandra, Why Ethnic Parties Succeed: Patronage and Ethnic Head Counts in India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004).
60. Ibid., p. 287.
61. James Manor, ' "Ethnicity" and Politics in India', International Affairs, Vol. 72, No. 3 (1996), p. 463.
62. Ibid., p. 473.
63. Oliver Heath, 'Anatomy of BJP's Rise to Power: Social, Regional and Political Expansion in 1990s', Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 34, Nos. 34-35 (1999), pp. 2511-7.
64. Juan Linz, Alfred Stepan, and Yogendra Yadav, ' "Nation State" or "State Nation": India in Comparative Perspective', in K. Shankar Bajpai (ed.), Democracy and Diversity: India and the American Experience (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2007), pp. 50-106.
65. M. V. Rajeev Gowda and E Sridharan, 'Parties and the Party System, 1947-2006', in Sumit Ganguly, Larry Diamond, and Marc F. Plattner (eds), The State of India's Democracy (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007), pp. 3-25.
66. Mitra (note 21), pp. 420-1.