Combining insulins with oral antidiabetic agents: Effect on hyperglycemic control, markers of cardiovascular risk and disease

Vascular Health and Risk Management

Volumn 4, Issue 3, 2008, Pages 561-574

  Hermansen, Kjeld ^a   Mortensen, Lene Sundahl ^a   Hermansen, Marie Louise ^a  

^a AARHUS UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Denmark)

Author keywords

Cardiovascular disease; Diabetes mellitus; Hyperglycemia; Insulin; Oral antidiabetic drugs; Type 2 diabetes

Indexed keywords

2,4 THIAZOLIDINEDIONE DERIVATIVE; ACARBOSE; ALPHA GLUCOSIDASE INHIBITOR; ANGIOTENSIN RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; ANTITHROMBOCYTIC AGENT; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; DIPEPTIDYL PEPTIDASE IV INHIBITOR; GLIBENCLAMIDE; GLUCAGON LIKE PEPTIDE 1 AGONIST; GLUCAGON LIKE PEPTIDE 1 DERIVATIVE; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; INSULIN; INSULIN ASPART; INSULIN DERIVATIVE; INSULIN DETEMIR; INSULIN GLARGINE; ISOPHANE INSULIN; MEGLITINIDE; METFORMIN; ORAL ANTIDIABETIC AGENT; PIOGLITAZONE; PLACEBO; ROSIGLITAZONE; SITAGLIPTIN; SULFONYLUREA DERIVATIVE;

ADD ON THERAPY; ANEMIA; BEDTIME DOSAGE; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CLINICAL TRIAL; COMBINATION CHEMOTHERAPY; DOSAGE SCHEDULE COMPARISON; DRUG COST; DRUG DOSE TITRATION; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG SAFETY; DRUG TOLERABILITY; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; ENDOTHELIAL DYSFUNCTION; EVENING DOSAGE; FLUID RETENTION; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; GLYCEMIC CONTROL; HEART INFARCTION; HUMAN; HYPERGLYCEMIA; HYPERTENSION; HYPOGLYCEMIA; INSULIN SENSITIVITY; LIFESTYLE MODIFICATION; MONOTHERAPY; MORNING DOSAGE; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; OBESITY; PATIENT COMPLIANCE; REVIEW; RISK REDUCTION; SIDE EFFECT; WEIGHT GAIN;

C-REACTIVE PROTEIN; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; DIABETIC ANGIOPATHIES; DRUG THERAPY, COMBINATION; HEMOGLOBIN A, GLYCOSYLATED; HUMANS; HYPOGLYCEMIC AGENTS; INSULIN; INSULIN, ISOPHANE; METFORMIN; POSTPRANDIAL PERIOD; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTORS; THIAZOLIDINEDIONES;

EID: 47849108928     PISSN: 11766344     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (115)

1. Ahmed I, Goldstein BJ. 2006. Cardiovascular risk in the spectrum of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Mt Sinai J Med, 73:759-68.
2. American Diabetes Association. 2002. Treatment of hypertension in adults with diabetes. Diabetes Care, 25:199-201.
3. Avena R, Mitchell ME, Nylen ES, et al. 1998. Insulin action enhancement normalizes brachial artery vasoactivity in patients with peripheral vascular disease and occult diabetes. J Vast Surg, 28:1024-31.
4. Bailey CJ, Day C. 2003. Antidiabetic drugs. Br J Cardiol, 10:128-36.
5. Bakris G, Viberti G, Weston WM, et al. 2003. Rosiglitazone reduces urinary albumin excretion in type II diabetes. J Hum Hypertens, 17:5-6.
6. Bo S, Ciccone G, Gancia R, et al. 2006. Mortality within the first 10 years of the disease in type 2 diabetic patients. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis, 16:8-12.
7. Boehm BO, Home PD, Behrend C, et al. 2002. Premixed insulin aspart 30 vs. premixed human insulin 30/70 twice daily: a randomized trial in Type 1 and Type 2 diabetic patients. Diabet Med, 19:393-9.
8. Bolen S, Feldman L, Vassy J, et al. 2007. Systematic review: comparative effectiveness and safety of oral medications for type 2 diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med [in press].
9. Buse JB, Tan MH, Prince MJ, et al. 2004. The effects of oral anti-hyperglycemic medications on serum lipid profiles in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Obes Metab, 6:133-56.
10. Carstensen M, Thomsen C, Gotzsche O, et al. 2004. Differential postprandial lipoprotein responses in type 2 diabetic men with and without clinical evidence of a former myocardial infarction. Rev Diabet Stud, 4:175-84.
11. Cavalot F, Petrelli A, Traversa M, et al. 2006. Postprandial blood glucose is a stronger predictor of cardiovascular events than fasting blood glucose in type 2 diabetes mellitus, particularly in women: lessons from the San Luigi Gonzaga Diabetes Study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 91:813-9.
12. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2003. National Diabetes Fact Sheet: National Estimates and General Information on Diabetes in the United States. Atlanta: US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
13. Ceriello A, Davidson J, Hanefeld M, et al. 2006. Postprandial hyperglycemia and cardiovascular complications of diabetes: an update. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis, 16:453-6.
14. Chiquette E, Ramirez G, DeFronzo R. 2004. A meta-analysis comparing the effect of thiazolidinediones on cardiovascular risk factors. Arch Intern Med, 164:2097-104.
15. Coates VE. 1994. Monitoring diabetic control. J Clin Nurs, 3:263-9.
16. Davidson MB. 2005. Starting insulin therapy in type 2 diabetic patients: does it really matter how? Diabetes Care, 28:494-5.
17. Davies M. 2004. The reality of glycemic control in insulin treated diabetes: defining the clinical challenges. Int J Obes, 28(Suppl 2):S14-22.
18. Davies M, Storms F, Shutler S, et al. 2005. Improvement of glycemic control in subjects with poorly controlled type 2 diabetes: comparison of two treatment algorithms using insulin glargine. Diabetes Care, 28:1282-8.
19. Davis TM, Cull CA, Holman RR; UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. 2001. Relationship between ethnicity and glycemic control, lipid profiles, and blood pressure during the first 9 years of type 2 diabetes: UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS 55). Diabetes Care, 24:1167-74.
20. De Jager J, Kooy A, Lehert PH, et al. 2005. Effects of short-term treatment with metformin on markers of endothelial function and inflammatory activity in type 2 diabetes mellitus: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. J Intern Med, 257:100-9.
21. DECODE Study Group, for the European Diabetes Epidemiology Group. 2001. Glucose tolerance and cardiovascular mortality: comparison of fasting and 2-hour diagnostic criteria. Arch Intern Med, 161:397-405.
22. DeFronzo RA, Ratner RE, Han J, et al. 2005. Effects of exenatide (exendin-4) on glycemic control and weight over 30 weeks in metformin-treated patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care, 28:1092-100.
23. DeVries JH, Nattrass M, Pieber TR. 2007. Refining basal insulin therapy: what have we learned in the age of analogues? Diabetes Metab Res Rev, 23:441-54.
24. Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. 1993. The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med, 329:977-86.
25. Dormandy JA, Charbonnel B, Eckland DJA, et al. 2005. Secondary prevention of macrovascular events in patients with type 2 diabetes in the PROactive Study (PROspective pioglitAzone Clinical Trial In macroVascular Events): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet, 366:1279-89.
26. Eliaschewitz FG, Calvo C, Valbuena H, et al; HOE 901/4013 LA Study Group. 2006. Therapy in type 2 diabetes: insulin glargine vs. NPH insulin both in combination with glimepiride. Arch Med Res, 37:495-501.
27. Fritsche A, Schweitzer MA, Haring HU 4001 Study Group. 2003. Glimepiride combined with morning insulin glargine, bedtime neutral protamine Hagedorn insulin, or bedtime insulin glargine in patients with type 2 diabetes. A randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med, 138:952-9.
28. Gaede P, Vedel P, Parving HH, et al. 1999. Intensified multifactorial intervention in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and microalbuminuria: the Steno type 2 randomised study. Lancet, 353:617-22.
29. Gaede P, Pedersen O. 2004. Intensive integrated therapy of type 2 diabetes: implications for long-term prognosis. Diabetes, 53:S39-47.
30. Garber AJ, Wahlen J, Wahl T, et al. 2006. Attainment of glycemic goals in type 2 diabetes with once-, twice-, or thrice-daily dosing with biphasic insulin aspart 70/30 (The 1-2-3 study). Diabetes Obes Metab, 8:58-66.
31. Goldstein BJ. 2002. Insulin resistance as the core defect in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Am J Cardiol, 90:3-10.
32. Haffner JS, Cassells H. 2003. Hyperglycemia as a cardiovascular risk factor. Am J Med, 115:S6-11.
33. Haffner SM, Lehto S, Ronnemaa T, et al. 1998. Mortality from coronary heart disease in subjects with type 2 diabetes and in nondiabetic subjects with and without prior myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med, 339:229-34.
34. Haffner SM, Greenberg AS, Weston WM, et al. 2002. Effect of rosiglitazone on nontraditional markers of cardiovascular disease in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Circulation, 106:679-84.
35. Hanas R, Ludvigsson J. 1997. Experience of pain from insulin injections and needle-phobia in young patients with IDDM. Pract Diab Int, 14:95-9.
36. Hanefeld M, Cagatay M, Petrowitsch T, et al. 2004. Acarbose reduces the risk for myocardial infarction in type 2 diabetic patients: meta-analysis of seven long-term studies. Eur Heart J, 25:10-6.
37. Hanefeld M, Fischer S, Julius U, et al. 1996. Risk factors for myocardial infarction and death in newly detected NIDDM: the Diabetes Intervention Study, 11-year follow-up. Diabetologia, 39:1577-83.
38. Harris MI. 1998. Diabetes in America: epidemiology and scope of the problem. Diabetes Care, 21: C11-4.
39. Hermann LS, Schersten B, Bitzen PO, et al. 1994. Therapeutic comparison of metformin and sulfonylurea, alone and in various combinations. A double-blind controlled study. Diabetes Care, 17:1100-9.
40. Hermansen K, Davies M, Derezinski T, et al. 2006. A 26-week, randomized, parallel, treat-to-target trial comparing insulin detemir with NPH insulin as add-on therapy to oral glucose-lowering drugs in insulin-naive people with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care, 29:1269-74.
41. Hermansen K, Mortensen LS. 2007. A review of bodyweight changes associated with antihyperglycemic agents in type 2 diabetes. Drug Safety, 30:1127-42.
42. Hermansen K, Kipnes M, Luo E, et al. 2007. Sitagliptin Study 035 Group. Efficacy and safety of the dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor, sitagliptin, in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus inadequately controlled on glimepiride alone or on glimepiride and metformin. Diabetes Obes Metab, [in press].
43. Higgs ER, Krentz AJ. 2004. ABCD position statement on glitazones. Pract Diabetes Int, 21:293-5.
44. Holman RR, Thorne KI, Farmer AJ, Davies MJ, Keenan JF, Paul S, Levy JC. 4-T Study Group. Addition of biphasic, prandial, or basal insulin to oral therapy in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med, 2007 Oct 25; 357(17):1716-30. Epub 2007 Sep 2.
45. Janka HU, Ziegler AG, Standl E, et al. 1987. Daily insulin dose as a predictor of macrovascular disease in insulin treated non-insulin dependent diabetics. Diabetes Metab, 13:359-64.
46. Kalofoutis C, Piperi C, Zisaki A, et al. 2006. Differences in expression of cardiovascular risk factors among type 2 diabetes mellitus patients of different age. Ann N Y Acad Sci, 1084:166-77.
47. Kann PH, Wascher T, Zackova V, et al. 2006. Starting insulin therapy in type 2 diabetes: twice-daily biphasic insulin aspart 30 plus metformin versus once-daily insulin glargine plus glimepiride. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes, 114:527-32.
48. Kannel WB. 2000. The Framingham Study: its 50-year legacy and future promise. J Atheroscler Thromb, 6:60-6.
49. Kannel WB, McGee DL. 1979. Diabetes and cardiovascular disease. The Framingham study. JAMA, 241:2035-8.
50. Kelly IE, Han TS, Walsh K, et al. 1999. Effects of a thiazolidinedione compound on body fat and fat distribution of patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care, 22:288-93.
51. Kempf K, Rose B, Herder C, et al. 2006. Inflammation in metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes: Impact of dietary glucose. Ann N Y Acad Sci, 1084:30-48.
52. Kermani A, Garg A. 2003. Thiazolidinedione-associated congestive heart failure and pulmonary edema. Mayo Clin Proc, 78:1088-91.
53. Kilo C, Mezitis N, Jain R, et al. 2003. Starting patients with type 2 diabetes on insulin therapy using once-daily injections of biphasic insulin aspart 70/30, biphasic human insulin 70/30, or NPH insulin in combination with metformin. J Diabetes Complications, 17:307-13.
54. Knopp RH, Walden CE, Retzlaff BM, et al. 1997. Long-term cholesterol-lowering effects of 4 fat-restricted diets in hypercholesterolemic and combined hyperlipidemic men. The Dietary Alternatives Study. JAMA, 278:1509-15.
55. Korytkowski M. 2002. When oral agents fail: practical barriers to starting insulin. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord, 26:S18-24.
56. Kronmal RA, Barzilay JI, Smith NL, et al. 2006. Mortality in pharmacologically treated older adults with diabetes: the Cardiovascular Health Study, 1989-2001. PLoS Med, 3:e4OO.
57. Kuusisto J, Mykkanen L, Pyorala K, et al. 1994. NIDDM and its metabolic control predict coronary heart disease in elderly subjects. Diabetes, 43:960-7.
58. Laakso M. 1995. Epidemiology of diabetic dyslipidemia. Diabetes Rev, 3:408-22.
59. Lehto S, Ronnemaa T, Haffner SM, et al. 1997. Dyslipidemia and hyperglycemia predict coronary heart disease events in middle-aged patients with NIDDM. Diabetes, 46:1354-9.
60. Lemieux S, Despres JP. 1994. Metabolic complications of visceral obesity: Contribution to the aetiology of type 2 diabetes and implications for prevention and treatment. Diabetes Metab, 20:375-93.
61. Liebl A, Prager R, Binz K, et al; on behalf of the PREFER study group. 2006. The PREFER Study: both biphasic insulin aspart 30 (BIAsp 30) twice-daily and basal-bolus using insulin detemir (IDet) and insulin aspart (IAsp) enabled patients with type 2 diabetes to achieve A1c target <7.0%. Diabetologia, 49(Suppl 1):610.
62. Liu QZ, Knowler WC, Nelson RG, et al. 1992. Insulin treatment, endogenous insulin concentration, and ECG abnormalities in diabetic Pima Indians. Cross-sectional and prospective analyses. Diabetes, 41:1141-50.
63. Macfarlane DP, Paterson KR, Fisher M. 2007. Oral antidiabetic agents as cardiovascular drugs. Diabetes Obes Metab, 9:23-30.
64. Mak KH, Moliterno DJ, Granger CB, et al. 1997. Influence of diabetes mellitus on clinical outcome in the thrombolytic era of acute myocardial infarction. GUSTO-I Investigators. Global Utilization of Streptokinase and Tissue Plasminogen Activator for Occluded Coronary Arteries. J Am Coll Cardiol, 30:171-9.
65. Malmberg K. 1997. Prospective randomised study of intensive insulin treatment on long term survival after acute myocardial infarction in patients with diabetes mellitus. DIGAMI (Diabetes Mellitus, Insulin Glucose Infusion in Acute Myocardial Infarction) Study Group. BMJ, 314:1512-5.
66. Malmberg K, Ryden L, Efendic S, et al. 1995. Randomized trial of insulin-glucose infusion followed by subcutaneous insulin treatment in diabetic patients with acute myocardial infarction (DIGAMI study): effects on mortality at 1 year. J Am Coll Cardiol, 26:57-65.
67. Malmberg K, Ryden L, Wedel H, et al. 2005. Intense metabolic control by means of insulin in patients with diabetes mellitus and acute myocardial infarction (DIGAMI 2): effects on mortality and morbidity. Eur Heart J, 26:650-61.
68. Malone JK, Kerr LF, Campaigne BN, et al; Lispro Mixture-Glargine Study Group. 2004. Combined therapy with insulin lispro Mix 75/25 plus metformin or insulin glargine plus metformin: a 16-week, randomized, open-label, crossover study in patients with type 2 diabetes beginning insulin therapy. Clin Ther, 26:2034-44.
69. Malone JK, Bai S, Campaigne BN, et al. 2005. Twice-daily pre-mixed insulin rather than basal insulin therapy alone results in better overall glycemic control in patients with Type 2 diabetes. Diabet Med, 22:374-81.
70. Manson JE, Nathan DM, Krolewski AS, et al. 1992. A prospective study of exercise and incidence of diabetes among US male physicians. JAMA, 268:63-7.
71. Massi-Benedetti M, Federici MO. 1999. Cardiovascular risk factors in type 2 diabetes: the role of hyperglycemia. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes, 107:S120-3.
72. Mather KJ, Verma S, Anderson TJ. 2001. Improved endothelial function with metformin in type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Am Coll Cardiol, 37:1344-50.
73. Medici F, Hawa M, Ianari A, et al. 1999. Concordance rate for type II diabetes mellitus in monozygotic twins: actuarial analysis. Diabetologia, 42:146-50.
74. Meece J. Pharmacoeconomic advantages of insulin analogs. US Pharm. 2006; 31:HS42-50. Available at: http://www.uspharmacist.com/index.asp?show= article&page=8_1920.htm Accessed 30 October 2007.
75. Meigs JB, Mittleman MA, Nathan DM, et al. 2000. Hyperinsulinemia, hyperglycemia, and impaired hemostasis: The Framingham Offspring Study. JAMA, 283:221-8.
76. Meneghini LF, Rosenberg KH, Koenen C, et al. 2007. Insulin detemir improves glycemic control with less hypoglycaemia and no weight gain in patients with type 2 diabetes who were insulin naive or treated with NPH or insulin glargine: clinical practice experience from a German subgroup of the PREDICTIVE study. Diabetes Obes Metab, 9:418-27.
77. Monnier L, Lapinski H, Colette C. 2003. Contributions of fasting and post-prandial plasma glucose increments to the overall diurnal hyperglycemia of type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes Care, 26:881-5.
78. Monnier L, Colette C, Dunseath GJ, et al. 2007. The loss of postprandial glycemic control precedes stepwise deterioration of fasting with worsening diabetes. Diabetes Care, 30:263-9.
79. Muis MJ, Bots ML, Grobbee DE, et al. 2005. Insulin treatment and cardiovascular disease; friend or foe? A point of view. Diabet Med, 22:118-26.
80. Nathan DM, Lachin J, Cleary P, et al. 2003. Diabetes Control and Complications Trial/Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions and Complications Study Research Group. Intensive diabetes therapy and carotid intima-media thickness in type 1 diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med, 348:2294-303.
81. Nathan DM, Cleary PA, Backlund JY, et al. 2005. Diabetes Control and Complications Trial/Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions and Complications Study Research Group. Intensive diabetes treatment and cardiovascular disease in patients with type 1 diabetes. N Engl J Med, 353:2643-53.
82. Nathan DM, Buse JB, Davidson MB, et al. 2006. Management of hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetes: a consensus algorithm for the initiation and adjustment of therapy. A consensus statement from the American Diabetes Association and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes. Diabetologia, 49:1711-21.
83. Nissen SE, Wolski K. 2007. Effect of rosiglitazone on the risk of myocardial infarction and death from cardiovascular causes. N Engl J Med, 356:2457-71.
84. O'Keefe JH Jr, Miles JM, Harris WH, et al. 1999. Improving the adverse cardiovascular prognosis of type 2 diabetes. Mayo Clin Proc, 74:171-80.
85. Philis-Tsimikas A, Charpentier G, Clauson P, et al. 2006. Comparison of once-daily insulin detemir with NPH insulin added to a regimen of oral antidiabetic drugs in poorly controlled type 2 diabetes. Clin Ther, 28:1569-81.
86. Polonsky KS, Given BD, Hirsch LJ, et al. 1988. Abnormal patterns of insulin secretion in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med, 318:1231-9.
87. Poulsen P, Kyvik KO, Vaag A, et al. 1999. Heritability of type II (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus and abnormal glucose tolerance - a population-based twin study. Diabetologia, 42:139-45.
88. Raskin P, Allen E, Hollander P, et al. 2005. Initiating Insulin Therapy in Type 2 Diabetes: a comparison of biphasic and basal insulin analogs. Diabetes Care, 28:260-5.
89. Reaven GM. 1995. Pathophysiology of insulin resistance in human disease. Physiol Rev, 75:473-86.
90. Ridderstraale M, Gudbjoernsdottir S, Eliasson B, et al. 2006. Obesity and cardiovascular risk factors in type 2 diabetes: results from the Swedish National Diabetes Register. J Intern Med, 259:314-22.
91. Riddle MC, Rosenstock J, Gerich J. Insulin Glargine 4002 Study Investigators. 2003. The Treat-to-Target Trial: Randomized addition of glargine or human NPH insulin to oral therapy of type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes Care, 26:3080-6.
92. Ridker PM, Hennekens CH, Buring JE, et al. 2000. C-reactive protein and other markers of inflammation in the prediction of cardiovascular disease in women. N Engl J Med, 342:836-43.
93. Rius Riu F, Salinas Vert I, Lucas Martín A, et al. 2003. A prospective study of cardiovascular disease in patients with Type 2 diabetes. 6.3 years of follow-up. J Diabetes Complications, 17:235-42.
94. Roach P, Yue L, Arora V. Humalog Mix25 Study Group. 1999. Improved post-prandial glycemic control during treatment with Humalog Mix25, a novel protamine-based insulin lispro formulation. Diabetes Care, 22:1258-61.
95. Schalkwijk CG, Poland DC, van Dijk W, et al. 1999. Plasma concentration of C-reactive protein is increased in type I diabetic patients without clinical macroangiopathy and correlates with markers of endothelial dysfunction: evidence for chronic inflammation. Diabetologia, 42:351-7.
96. Schernthaner G. 1996. Cardiovascular mortality and morbidity in type-2 diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Res Clin Pract, 31:S3-13.
97. Schramm TK, Gislason G, Rasmussen S, et al. 2007. Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in diabetes patients receiving glucose reducing treatment: a population-based study of 3.3 million. American Diabetes Association 2007 Scientific Sessions; Chicago, IL. Poster 692.
98. Stamler J, Vaccaro O, Neaton JD, et al. 1993. Diabetes, other risk factors, and 12-yr cardiovascular mortality for men screened in the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial. Diabetes Care, 16:434-44.
99. St. John Sutton M, Rendell M, Dandona P, et al. 2002. A comparison of the effects of rosiglitazone and glyburide on cardiovascular function and glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care, 25:2058-64.
100. Stolar MW, Chilton RJ. 2003. Type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular risk, and the link to insulin resistance. Clin Ther, 25:134-31.
101. Stratton IM, Adler AI, Neil AW, et al. 2000. Association of glycaemia with macrovascular and microvascular complications of type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 35): prospective observational study. BMJ, 32:405-12.
102. Turner R, Cull C, Holman R, for the UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group. 1996. UKPDS 17: a 9-year update of a randomized, controlled trial on the effect of improved metabolic control on complications in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med, 124:136-45.
103. Turner RC, Holman RR, Stratton IM, et al. 1998. Effect of intensive blood-glucose control with metformin on complications in overweight patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 34). Lancet, 352:854-65.
104. Turner RC, Cull CA, Frighi V, et al. 1999. Glycemic control with diet, sulfonylurea, metformin, or insulin in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: progressive requirements for multiple therapies. JAMA, 281:2005-12.
105. UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group. 1998. Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33). Lancet, 352:837-53.
106. UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group. 1998. Tight blood pressure control and risk of macrovascular and microvascular complications in type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 38). BMJ, 317:703-13.
107. Van de Laar FA, Lucassen PLBJ: No evidence for a reduction of myocardial infarctions by acarbose (Letter). Eur Heart J 25: 1179, 2004.
108. Van De Laar FA, Lucassen PL, Akkermans RP, et al. 2005. A-Glucosidase inhibitors for patients with type 2 diabetes: results from a Cochrane systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetes Care, 28:154-63.
109. Vilsbøll T, Zdravkovic M, Le-Thi T, et al. 2006. Liraglutide significantly improves glycemic control, and lowers body weight without risk of either major or minor hypoglycemic episodes in subjects with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes, 55:A27.
110. Watanabe Y, Sunayama S, Shimada K, et al. 2000. Troglitazone improves endothelial dysfunction in patients with insulin resistance. J Atheroscler Thromb, 7:159-63.
111. Wing R. 1995. Use of very-low-calorie diets in the treatment of obese persons with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. J Am Diet Assoc, 95:569-74.
112. Wolf AM, Colditz GA. 1998. Current estimates of the economic cost of obesity in the United States. Obes Res, 6:97-106.
113. Wright A, Felix Burden AC, Paisey RB, et al. 2002. Sulfonylurea inadequacy. Efficacy of addition of insulin over 6 years in patients with type 2 diabetes in the UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS 57). Diabetes Care, 25:330-6.
114. Wulffele MG, Kooy A, Zeeuw D, et al. 2004. The effect of metformin on blood pressure, plasma cholesterol and triglycerides in type 2 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review. J Intern Med, 256: 1-14.
115. Yki-Jarvinen H, Dressler A, Ziemen M. HOE 901/3002 Study Group. 2000. Less nocturnal hypoglycaemia and better post-dinner glucose control with bedtime insulin glargine compared with bedtime NPH insulin during insulin combination therapy in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care, 23: 1130-6.