Treatment of opportunistic infections in adolescent and adult patients infected by the human immunodeficiency virus during the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy AIDS Study Group (GESIDA) and National AIDS Plan Expert Committe;Tratamiento de las infecciones oportunistas en pacientes adultos y adolescentes infectados por el virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana en la era del tratamiento antirretroviral de gran actividad. Recomendaciones del Grupo de Estudio del Sida (GESIDA)/Plan Nacional sobre el Sida

Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiologia Clinica

Volumn 26, Issue 6, 2008, Pages 356-379

  Podzamczer, Daniel ^a   Barros, Carlos ^b   Berenguer, Juan ^b   Gutiérrez, Félix ^b   Iribarren, José Antonio ^b   Miró, José M ^b   Molina, José Pérez ^b   Aguirrebengoa, Koldo ^b   Arribas, José Ramón ^b   Boix, Vicente ^b   Cahn, Pedro ^b   Castro, Ángeles ^b   Caylá, Joan ^b   Cobo, Javier ^b   Corzo, Juan Enrique ^b   De La Torre, Javier ^b   Dronda, Fernando ^b   Ena, Javier ^b   Falcó, Vicenç ^b   Ferrer, Elena ^b   Labarga, Pablo ^b   Locutura, Jaime ^b   Mallolas, Josep ^b   Moreno, Santiago ^b   Ocampo, Antonio ^b   Ocaña, Imma ^b   Olalla, Julián ^b   Padilla, Belén ^b   Pérez Elías, Ma Jesús ^b   Polo, Rosa ^b   Portilla, Joaquín ^b   Riera, Melcior ^b   Rivero, Antonio ^b   Salavert, Miguel ^b   Sanz, José ^b   more..

^a HOSPITAL UNIVERSITARI DE BELLVITGE   (Spain)

^b NONE

Author keywords

AIDS; Guidelines; HIV infection; Opportunistic infections

Indexed keywords

ALBENDAZOLE; AMPHOTERICIN; AMPHOTERICIN B; ANTIMONY; ATOVAQUONE; AZITHROMYCIN; CIPROFLOXACIN; CLARITHROMYCIN; CLINDAMYCIN; CLOTRIMAZOLE; COTRIMOXAZOLE; DAPSONE; FLUCONAZOLE; FOLINIC ACID; FUMAGILLOL CHLOROACETYLCARBAMATE; ITRACONAZOLE; KETOCONAZOLE; METRONIDAZOLE; MILTEFOSINE; NITAZOXANIDE; NYSTATIN; PENTAMIDINE; PREDNISONE; PRIMAQUINE; PYRIMETHAMINE; SULFADIAZINE; SULFAMETHOXAZOLE; TRIMETHOPRIM; TRIMETREXATE; UNINDEXED DRUG;

ASPERGILLUS; BACTERIAL INFECTION; BACTERIAL PNEUMONIA; BLASTOCYSTIS HOMINIS; CANDIDA; CHICKENPOX; CLINICAL FEATURE; CONFERENCE PAPER; CRYPTOCOCCUS NEOFORMANS; CRYPTOSPORIDIUM; CYCLOSPORA CAYETANENSIS; CYTOMEGALOVIRUS; DIAGNOSTIC PROCEDURE; ENCEPHALITOZOON CUNICULI; ENDOLIMAX; ENTAMOEBA; ENTERITIS; ENTEROCOLITIS; ENTEROCYTOZOON; FILARIASIS; GASTROINTESTINAL DISEASE; GENITAL HERPES; GIARDIA LAMBLIA; HEMANGIOMATOSIS; HEPATITIS; HERPES LABIALIS; HERPES SIMPLEX ENCEPHALITIS; HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUS; HERPES ZOSTER; HIGHLY ACTIVE ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTED PATIENT; IMMUNE DEFICIENCY; IMMUNE RECONSTITUTION INFLAMMATORY SYNDROME; INCIDENCE; INFECTION PREVENTION; ISOSPORA; KERATOCONJUNCTIVITIS; LEISHMANIA DONOVANI; LISTERIOSIS; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; MYCOBACTERIOSIS; MYCOBACTERIUM INTRACELLULARE AVIUM; MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS; MYCOSIS; OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTION; PARASITOSIS; PLASMODIUM; PNEUMOCYSTIS JIROVECI; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PROGNOSIS; PROGRESSIVE MULTIFOCAL LEUKOENCEPHALOPATHY; RETINITIS; STRONGYLOIDES STERCORALIS; SYPHILIS; TAENIA SOLIUM; THRUSH; TOXOPLASMA GONDII; TREATMENT DURATION; TRYPANOSOMA RHODESIENSE; VAGINA CANDIDIASIS; VIRUS INFECTION;

EID: 45849113217     PISSN: 0213005X     EISSN: 15781852     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1157/13123842     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (189)

1. Gottlieb M, Schroff R, Schanker H, Weisman JD, Fan PT, Wolf RA, et al. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia and mucosal candidiasis in previously healthy homosexual men: evidence of a new acquired cellular immunodeficiency. N Engl J Med. 1981;305:1425-31.
2. Ferrer E, Podzamczer D. The management of opportunistic infections in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS Rev. 2000;2:252-62.
3. Palella F Jr, Delaney K, Moorman A, Loveless MO, Fuhrer J, Satten GA, et al. Declining morbidity and mortality among patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med. 1998;338:853-60.
4. Caro-Murillo AM, Castilla J, Pérez-Hoyos S, Miró JM, Podzamczer D, Rubio R, et al. Spanish cohort of naive HIV-infected patients (CoRIS): rationale, organization and initial results. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin. 2007;25:23-31.
5. Jaén A, Casabona J, Esteve A, Miró JM, Tural C, Ferrer E, et al. Características y tendencias de los nuevos diagnósticos de infección por el virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana. Cohorte PISCIS. Med Clin (Barc). 2005;124:525-31.
6. Podzamczer D, Arribas JR, Mallolas J, Peña JM, Pulido F. Tratamiento de las infecciones oportunistas en pacientes adultos y adolescentes infectados por el virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana en la era del tratamiento antirretroviral de gran actividad. Recomendaciones de GESIDA/Plan Nacional sobre el SIDA. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin. 2001;19:376-92.
7. Panel de expertos de GESIDA y Plan Nacional sobre el Sida. Prevención de las infecciones oportunistas en pacientes adultos y adolescentes infectados por el virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana en la era del tratamiento antirretrovírico de gran actividad. Recomendaciones del Grupo de Estudio del Sida (GESIDA)/Plan Nacional sobre el Sida. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin. 2008; en prensa.
8. Klein NC, Duncanson FP, Lenox TH, Forszpaniak C, Sherer CB, Quentzel H, et al. Trimethoprim sulfamethoxazole versus pentamidine for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in AIDS patients: results of a large prospective randomized treatment trial. AIDS. 1992;6:301-6.
9. The National Institutes of Health University of California. Expert panel for corti costeroids as adjunctive therapy for Pneumocystis pneumonia. Consensus statement on the use of corticosteroids as adjunctive therapy for Pneumocystis pneumonia in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1990;323:1500-4.
10. Safrin S, Lee BL, Sande MA. Adjunctive folinic acid with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in AIDS patients is associated with an increased risk of therapeutic failure and death. J Infect Dis. 1994;170:912-7.
11. Crothers K, Beard CB, Turner J, Groner G, Fox M, Morris A, et al. Severity and outcome of HIV-associated Pneumocystis pneumonia containing Pneumocystis jirovecii dihydropteroate synthase gene mutations. AIDS. 2005;19:801-5.
12. Safrin S, Finkelstein DM, Feinberg J, Frame P, Simpson G, Wu A, et al. Comparison of three regimens for treatment of mild to moderate PCP in patients with AIDS. Ann Intern Med. 1996;124:792-802.
13. Medina I, Mills J, Leoung G, Hopewell PC, Lee B, Modin G, et al. Oral therapy for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. A controlled trial of trimethoprim sulfamethoxazole versus trimethoprim dapsone. N Engl J Med. 1990;323:776-82.
14. Black JR, Feinberg J, Murphy RL, Fass RJ, Finkelstein D, Akil B, et al. Clindamycin and primaquine therapy for mild to moderate episodes of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with AIDS: AIDS Clinical Trials Group 044. Clin Infect Dis. 1994;18:905-13.
15. Hughes W, Leoung G, Kramer F, Bozzette Sa, Safrin S, Frame P, et al. Comparison of atovaquone (566C80) with trimethoprim sulfamethoxazole to treat Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with AIDS. N Engl J Med. 1993;328:1521-7.
16. Dannemann BR, McCutchan JA, Israelski D, Antoniskis D, Leport C, Luft B, et al. Treatment of toxoplasmic encephalitis (TE) in patients with AIDS: a randomized trial comparing pyrimethamine plus clindamycin (PC) to pyrimethamine plus sulfonamides (PS). Ann Intern Med. 1992;116:33-43.
17. Katlama C, De Wit S, O'Doherty E, Van Glabeke M, Clumeck N. Pyrimethami ne clindamycin versus pyrimethamine sulfadiazine as acute and long term therapy for toxoplasmic encephalitis in patients with AIDS. Clin Infect Dis. 1996;22:268-75.
18. Chirgwin K, Hafner R, Leport C, Remington J, Andersen J, Bosler EM, et al. Randomized phase II trial of atovaquone with pyrimethamine or sulfadiazine for treatment of toxoplasmic encephalitis in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: ACTG 237/ANRS 039 study. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;34:1243-50.
19. Fernández-Martín J, Leport C, Morlat P, Meyohas MC, Chauvin JP, Vilde JL. Pyrimethamine-clarythromycin combination for therapy of acute Toxoplasma encephalitis in patients with AIDS. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1991;35:2049-52.
20. Torre D, Casari S, Speranza F, Donisi A, Gregis G, Poggio A, et al. Randomized trial of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole versus pyrimethamine- sulfadiazine for therapy of toxoplasmic encephalitis in patients with AIDS. Italian Collaborative Study Group. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1998;42:1346-9.
21. Pape JW, Verdier RI, Johnson WD Jr. Treatment and prophylaxis of Isospora belli infection in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1989;320:1044-7.
22. Didier ES, Weiss LM. Microsporidiosis: current status. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2006;19:485-92.
23. Molina JM, Tourneur M, Sarfati C, Chevret S, De Gouvello A, Gobert JG, et al. Fumagillin treatment of intestinal microsporidiosis. N Engl J Med. 2002;346:1963-9.
24. Molina JM, Chastang C, Goguel J, Michiels JF, Sarfati C, Desportes-Livage I, et al. Albendazole for treatment and prophylaxis of microsporidiosis due to Encephalitozoon intestinalis in patients with AIDS: A randomized double-blind controlled trial. J Infect Dis. 1998;177:1373-7.
25. Miao YM, Awad-El-Kariem FM, Franzen C, Ellis DS, Müller A, Conninham HM, et al. Eradication of cryptosporidia and microsporidia following successful antiretroviral therapy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2000;25:124-9.
26. White AC, Chappell CL, Hayat CS, Kimball KT, Flanigan TP, Goodgame RW. Paromomycin for cryptosporidiosis in AIDS: a prospective, double blind trial. J Infect Dis. 1994;170:419-24.
27. Abubakar I, Aliyu SH, Arumugam C, Usman NK, Hunter PR. Treatment of cryptosporidiosis in immunocompromised individuals: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2007;63:387-93.
28. Rossignol JF. Nitazoxanide in the treatment of acquired immune deficiency syndrome-related cryptosporidiosis: results of the United States compassionate use program in 365 patients. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2006;24:887-94.
29. Laguna F, López-Vélez R, Pulido F, Salas A, Torre-Cisneros J, Torres E, et al. Treatment of visceral leishmaniasis in HIV-infected patients: a randomized trial comparing meglumine antimoniate with amphotericin B. Spanish HIV-Leishmania Study Group. AIDS. 1999;13:1063-9.
30. Davidson RN, Di Martino L, Gradoni L, Giacchino R, Gaeta GB, Pempinello R, et al. Short course treatment of visceral leishmaniasis with liposomal amphotericin B (AmBisome). Clin Infect Dis. 1996;22:938-43.
31. Laguna F, Videla S, Jiménez-Mejías E, Sirera G, Torre-Cisneros J, Ribera E, et al. Amphotericin B lipid complex vs meglumine antimoniate in the treatment of visceral leishmaniasis in HIV-infected patients: a multicenter, open label, blinded, randomization, parallel controlled clinical trial. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2003;52:464-8.
32. Sindermann H, Engel KR, Fischer C, Bommer W. Oral miltefosine for leishmaniasis in immunocompromised patients: compassionate use in 39 patients with HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39:1520-3.
33. Sundar S, Jha TK, Thakur CP, Sinha PK, Bhattacharya SK. Injectable paromomycinfor visceral leishmaniasis in India. N Engl J Med. 2007;356:2571-81.
34. Laine L, Dretler RH, Conteas CN, Tuazon C, Koster FM, Sattler F, et al. Fluconazole compared with ketoconazole for the treatment of Candida esophagitis in AIDS. A randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 1992;117:655-60.
35. Barbaro G, Barbarini G, Di Lorenzo G. Fluconazole compared with itraconazole in the treatment of esophageal candidiasis in AIDS patients: a double-blind, randomized, controlled clinical study. Scand J Infect Dis. 1995;27:613-7.
36. Pons V, Greenspan D, Lozada-Nur F, McPhail L, Gallant JE, Tunkel A, et al. Oropharyngeal candidiasis in patients with AIDS: randomized comparison of fluconazole versus nystatin oral suspensions. Clin Infect Dis. 1997;24:1204-7.
37. Graybill JR, Vázquez J, Darouiche RO, Morhart R, Greenspan D, Tuazon C, et al. Randomized trial of itraconazole oral solution for oropharyngeal candidiasis in HIV/AIDS patients. Am J Med. 1998;104:33-9.
38. Fichtenbaum CJ, Powderly WG. Refractory mucosal candidiasis in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Clin Infect Dis. 1998;26:556-65.
39. Dinubile MJ, Lupinacci RJ, Berman RS, Sable CA. Response and relapse rates of candidal esophagitis in HIV-infected patients treated with caspofungin. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2002;18:903-8.
40. Skiest DJ, Vázquez JA, Anstead GM, Graybill JR, Reynes J, Ward D, et al. Posaconazole for the treatment of azole-refractory oropharyngeal and esophageal candidiasis in subjects with HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:607-14.
41. Mitchell TG, Perfect JR. Cryptococcosis in the era of AIDS - 100 years after the discovery of Cryptococcus neoformans. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1995;8:515-48.
42. Rex JH, Larsen RA, Dismukes WE, Cloud GA, Bennett JE. Catastrophic visual loss due to Cryptococcus neoformans meningitis. Medicine (Baltimore). 1993;72:207-24.
43. van der Horst CM, Saag MS, Cloud GA, Hamill RJ, Graybill JR, Sobel JD, et al. Treatment of cryptococcal meningitis associated with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Mycoses Study Group and AIDS Clinical Trials Group. N Engl J Med. 1997;337:15-21.
44. Leenders AC, Reiss P, Portegies P, Clezy K, Hop WC, Hoy J, et al. Liposomal amphotericin B (AmBisome) compared with amphotericin B both followed by oral fluconazole in the treatment of AIDS-associated cryptococcal meningitis. AIDS. 1997;11:1463-71.
45. Berry AJ, Rinaldi MG, Graybill JR. Use of high-dose fluconazole as salvage therapy for cryptococcal meningitis in patients with AIDS. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1992;36:690-2.
46. Larsen RA, Bozzette SA, Jones BE, Haghighat D, Leal MA, Forthal D, et al. Fluconazole combined with flucytosine for treatment of cryptococcal meningitis in patients with AIDS. Clin Infect Dis. 1994;19:741-5.
47. Saag MS, Powderly WG, Cloud GA, Robinson P, Grieco MH, Sharkey PK, et al. Comparison of amphotericin B with fluconazole in the treatment of acute AIDS-associated cryptococcal meningitis. The NIAID Mycoses Study Group and the AIDS Clinical Trials Group. N Engl J Med. 1992;326:83-9.
48. Fessler RD, Sobel J, Guyot L, Crane L, Vázquez J, Szuba MJ, et al. Management of elevated intracranial pressure in patients with Cryptococcal meningitis. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol. 1998;17:137-42.
49. Roilides E, Holmes A, Blake C, Pizzo PA, Walsh TJ. Defective antifungal activity of monocyte-derived macrophages from human immunodeficiency virus-infected children against Aspergillus fumigatus. J Infect Dis. 1993;168:1562-5.
50. Denning DW, Follansbee SE, Scolaro M, Norris S, Edelstein H, Stevens DA. Pulmonary aspergillosis in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1991;324:654-62.
51. Wallace JM, Lim R, Browdy BL, Hopewell PC, Glassroth J, Rosen MJ, et al. Risk factors and outcomes associated with identification of Aspergillus in respiratory specimens from persons with HIV disease. Pulmonary Complications of HIV Infection Study Group. Chest. 1998;114:131-7.
52. Berenguer J, Allende MC, Lee JW, Garrett K, Lyman C, Ali NM, et al. Pathogenesis of pulmonary aspergillosis. Granulocytopenia versus cyclosporine and methylprednisolone-induced immunosuppression. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995;152:1079-86.
53. Herbrecht R, Denning DW, Patterson TF, Bennett JE, Greene RE, Oestmann JW, et al. Voriconazole versus amphotericin B for primary therapy of invasive aspergillosis. N Engl J Med. 2002;347:408-15.
54. Segal BH, Walsh TJ. Current approaches to diagnosis and treatment of invasive aspergillosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2006;173:707-17.
55. Stevens DA, Kan VL, Judson MA, Morrison VA, Dummer S, Denning DW, et al. Practice guidelines for diseases caused by Aspergillus. Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;30:696-709.
56. Benson CA, Kaplan JE, Masur H, Pau A, Holmes KK. Treating opportunistic infections among HIV-infected adults and adolescents: recommendations from CDC, the National Institutes of Health, and the HIV Medicine Association/Infectious Diseases Society of America. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2004;53:1-112.
57. Berger T. Herpes virus infections and HIV disease. Clin Dermatol. 1991;9:79-85.
58. Freeman EE, Weiss HA, Glynn JR, Cross PL, Whitworth JA, Hayes RJ. Herpes simplex virus 2 infection increases HIV acquisition in men and women: systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. AIDS. 2006;20:73-83.
59. Fife KH, Barbarash RA, Rudolph T, Degregorio B, Roth R. Valaciclovir versus acyclovir in the treatment of first-episode genital herpes infection. Results of an international, multicenter, double-blind, randomized clinical trial. The Valaciclovir International Herpes Simplex Virus Study Group. Sex Transm Dis. 1997;24:481-86.
60. Romanowski B, Aoki FY, Martel AY, Lavender EA, Parsons JE, Saltzman RL. Efficacy and safety of famciclovir for treating mucocutaneous herpes simplex infection in HIV-infected individuals. Collaborative Famciclovir HIV Study Group. AIDS. 2000;14:1211-7.
61. Nagot N, Ouedraogo A, Foulongne V, Konate I, Weiss HA, Vergne L, et al. Reduction of HIV-1 RNA levels with therapy to suppress herpes simplex virus. N Engl J Med. 2007;356:790-9.
62. DeJesus E, Wald A, Warren T, Schacker TW, Trottier S, Shahmanesh M, et al. Valacyclovir for the suppression of recurrent genital herpes in human immunodeficiency virus-infected subjects. J Infect Dis. 2003;188:1009-16.
63. Diaz-Mitoma F, Sibbald RG, Shafran SD, Boon R, Saltzman RL. Oral famciclovir for the suppression of recurrent genital herpes: a randomized controlled trial. Collaborative Famciclovir Genital Herpes Research Group. JAMA. 1998;280:887-92.
64. Mertz GJ, Jones CC, Mills J, Fife KH, Lemon SM, Stapleton JT, et al. Long-term acyclovir suppression of frequently recurring genital herpes simplex virus infection. A multicenter double-blind trial. JAMA. 1988;260:201-6.
65. Mertz GJ, Loveless MO, Levin MJ, Kraus SJ, Fowler SL, Goade D, et al. Oral famciclovir for suppression of recurrent genital herpes simplex virus infection in women. A multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Collaborative Famciclovir Genital Herpes Research Group. Arch Intern Med. 1997;157:343-9.
66. Schacker T, Hu HL, Koelle DM, Zeh J, Saltzman R, Boon R, et al. Famciclovir for the suppression of symptomatic and asymptomatic herpes simplex virus reactivation in HIV-infected persons. A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Med. 1998;128:21-8.
67. Warren T, Harris J, Brennan CA. Efficacy and safety of valacyclovir for the suppression and episodic treatment of herpes simplex virus in patients with HIV. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39 Suppl 5:S258-S66.
68. Lingappa JR, Celum C. Clinical and therapeutic issues for herpes simplex virus-2 and HIV co-infection. Drugs. 2007;67:155-74.
69. Sen P, Barton SE. Genital herpes and its management. BMJ. 2007;334:1048-52.
70. Balfour HH Jr. Antiviral drugs. N Engl J Med. 1999;340:1255-68.
71. Balfour HH Jr, Benson C, Braun J, Cassens B, Erice A, Friedman-Kien A, et al. Management of acyclovir-resistant herpes simplex and varicella-zoster virus infections. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1994;7:254-60.
72. Danve-Szatanek C, Aymard M, Thouvenot D, Morfin F, Agius G, Bertin I, et al. Surveillance network for herpes simplex virus resistance to antiviral drugs: 3-year follow-up. J Clin Microbiol. 2004;42:242-9.
73. De CE, Sakuma T, Baba M, Pauwels R, Balzarini J, Rosenberg I, et al. Antiviral activity of phosphonylmethoxyalkyl derivatives of purine and pyrimidines. Antiviral Res. 1987;8:261-72.
74. Dworkin RH, Johnson RW, Breuer J, Gnann JW, Levin MJ, Backonja M, et al. Recommendations for the management of herpes zoster. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44 Suppl 1:S1-26.
75. Aizman A, Johnson MW, Elner SG. Treatment of acute retinal necrosis syndrome with oral antiviral medications. Ophthalmology. 2007;114:307-12.
76. Lau CH, Missotten T, Salzmann J, Lightman SL. Acute retinal necrosis features, management, and outcomes. Ophthalmology. 2007;114:756-62.
77. Austin RB. Progressive outer retinal necrosis syndrome: a comprehensive review of its clinical presentation, relationship to immune system status, and management. Clin Eye Vis Care. 2000;12:119-29.
78. Yin PD, Kurup SK, Fischer SH, Rhee HH, Byrnes GA, Levy-Clarke GA, et al. Progressive outer retinal necrosis in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy: successful management with intravitreal injections and monitoring with quantitative PCR. J Clin Virol. 2007;38:254-9.
79. Jabs DA, Van Natta ML, Kempen JH, Reed PP, Lim JI, Murphy RL, et al. Characteristics of patients with cytomegalovirus retinitis in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Am J Ophthalmol. 2002;133:48-61.
80. Spector SA, Weingeist T, Pollard RB, Dieterich DT, Samo T, Benson CA, et al. A randomized, controlled study of intravenous ganciclovir therapy for cytomegalovirus peripheral retinitis in patients with AIDS. AIDS Clinical Trials Group and Cytomegalovirus Cooperative Study Group. J Infect Dis. 1993;168:557-63.
81. Palestine AG, Polis MA, De Smet MD, Baird BF, Falloon J, Kovacs JA, et al. A randomized, controlled trial of foscarnet in the treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with AIDS. Ann Intern Med. 1991;115:665-73.
82. Lalezari JP, Stagg RJ, Kuppermann BD, Holland GN, Kramer F, Ives DV, et al. Intravenous cidofovir for peripheral cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with AIDS. A randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med. 1997;126:257-63.
83. Drew WL, Ives D, Lalezari JP, Crumpacker C, Follansbee SE, Spector SA, et al. Oral ganciclovir as maintenance treatment for cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with AIDS. Syntex Cooperative Oral Ganciclovir Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1995;333:615-20.
84. Martin DF, Kuppermann BD, Wolitz RA, Palestine AG, Li H, Robinson CA. Oral ganciclovir for patients with cytomegalovirus retinitis treated with a ganciclovir implant. Roche Ganciclovir Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1999;340:1063-70.
85. Musch DC, Martin DF, Gordon JF, Davis MD, Kuppermann BD. Treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis with a sustained-release ganciclovir implant. The Ganciclovir Implant Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1997;337:83-90.
86. Martin DF, Sierra-Madero J, Walmsley S, Wolitz RA, Macey K, Georgiou P, et al. A controlled trial of valganciclovir as induction therapy for cytomegalovirus retinitis. N Engl J Med. 2002;346:1119-26.
87. Martin BK, Ricks MO, Forman MS, Jabs DA. Change over time in incidence of ganciclovir resistance in patients with cytomegalovirus retinitis. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:1001-8.
88. Lalezari JP, Holland GN, Kramer F, McKinley GF, Kemper CA, Ives DV, et al. Randomized, controlled study of the safety and efficacy of intravenous cidofovir for the treatment of relapsing cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with AIDS. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol. 1998;17:339-44.0
89. Marra CM, Rajicic N, Barker DE, Cohen BA, Clifford D, Donovan Post MJ, et al. A pilot study of cidofovir for progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in AIDS. AIDS. 2002;16:1791-7.
90. Jacobson MA, French M. Altered natural history of AIDS-related opportunistic infections in the era of potent combination antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 1998;12 Suppl A:S157-63.
91. Miralles P, Berenguer J, García DV, Padilla B, Cosin J, López-Bernaldo de Quirós JC, et al. Treatment of AIDS-associated progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy with highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 1998;12:2467-72.
92. Tantisiriwat W, Tebas P, Clifford DB, Powderly WG, Fichtenbaum CJ. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in patients with AIDS receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 1999;28:1152-4.
93. 92bis. Berenguer J, Miralles P, Arrizabalaga J, Ribera E, Dronda F, Baraia-Etxaburu J, et al. Clinical course and prognostic factors of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in patients treated with highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;36:1047-52.
94. Miralles P, Berenguer J, Lacruz C, Cosin J, López JC, Padilla B, et al. Inflammatory reactions in progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy after highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 2001;15:1900-2.
95. Martínez JV, Mazziotti JV, Efron ED, Bonardo P, Jordan R, Sevlever G, et al. Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome associated with PML in AIDS: a treatable disorder. Neurology. 2006;67:1692-4.
96. Friedland G, Churchyard GJ, Nardell E. Tuberculosis and HIV coinfection: current state of knowledge and research priorities. J Infect Dis. 2007;196 Suppl 1:S1-3.
97. Treatment of tuberculosis. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2003;52:1-77.
98. Consensus statement on directly observed therapies for tuberculosis. Med Clin (Barc). 2000;115:749-57.
99. Nahid P, González LC, Rudoy I, de Jong BC, Unger A, Kawamura LM, et al. Treatment outcomes of patients with HIV and tuberculosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2007;175:1199-206.
100. Mofenson LM, Oleske J, Serchuck L, Van Dyke R, Wilfert C. Treating opportunistic infections among HIV-exposed and infected children: recommendations from CDC, the National Institutes of Health, and the Infectious Diseases Society of America. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2004;53:1-92.
101. Recommendations from the GESIDA/Spanish AIDS Plan regarding antiretroviral treatment in adults with human immunodeficiency virus infection (update January 2007). Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin. 2007;25:32-53.
102. "Dear Health Care Provider letter-Roche pharmaceuticals (7-2-2005); 2005". 2005.
103. López-Cortés LF, Ruiz-Valderas R, Ruiz-Morales J, León E, De Campos AV, Marín-Niebla A, et al. Efavirenz trough levels are not associated with virological failure throughout therapy with 800 mg daily and a rifampicin-containing antituberculosis regimen. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2006;58:1017-23.
104. Lawn SD, Myer L, Bekker LG, Wood R. Tuberculosis-associated immune reconstitution disease: incidence, risk factors and impact in an antiretroviral treatment service in South Africa. AIDS. 2007;21:335-41.
105. Manosuthi W, Chottanapand S, Thongyen S, Chaovavanich A, Sungkanuparph S. Survival rate and risk factors of mortality among HIV/tuberculosis-coinfected patients with and without antiretroviral therapy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2006;43:42-6.
106. Breen RA, Miller RF, Gorsuch T, Smith CJ, Schwenk A, Holmes W, et al. Adverse events and treatment interruption in tuberculosis patients with and without HIV co-infection. Thorax. 2006;61:791-4.
107. "Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; Revised definition of extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis". MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2006;55:1176.
108. Benson CA, Williams PL, Currier JS, Holland F, Mahon LF, MacGregor RR, et al. A prospective, randomized trial examining the efficacy and safety of clarithromycin in combination with ethambutol, rifabutin, or both for the treatment of disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex disease in persons with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;37:1234-43.
109. Hirschtick RE, Glasroth J, Jordan MC, Wilcosky TC, Wallace JM, Kuale PA, et al. Bacterial pneumonia in persons infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. The Pulmonary Complications of HIV Infection Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1995;333:845-51.
110. Mcellistrem MC, Mendelsohn AB, Pass MA, Elliott JA, Whitney CG, Kolano JA, et al. Recurrent invasive pneumococcal disease in individuals with human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Infect Dis. 2002;185:1364-8.
111. Rimland D, Navin TR, Lennox JL, Jernigan JA, Kaplan J, Erdman D, et al. Prospective study of etiologic agents of community-acquired pneumonia in patients with HIV infection. AIDS. 2002;16:85-95.
112. Grau I, Pallarés R, Tubán F, Schulze MH, Llopis F, Podzamczer D, et al. Epidemiologic changes in bacteremic pneumococcal disease in patients with HIV in the era of highly actived antiretroviral therapy. Arch Intern Med. 2005;165:1533-40.
113. Steinhart R, Reingold AL, Taylor F, Anderson G, Wenger JD. Invasive Haemophilys influenzae infections in men with HIV infection. JAMA. 1992;268:3350-2.
114. Shepp DH, Tang IT, Ramundo MB, Kaplan MK. Serious Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection in AIDS. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1994;7:823-31.
115. Barlett JG, Dowell SF, Mandell LA, File TM Jr, Musher DM, Fine MJ. Practice Guidelines for the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;31:347-82.
116. Heffelfinger JD, Dowell SF, Jorgensen JH, Klugman KP, Mabry LR, Musher DM, et al. Management of community-acquired pneumonia in the era of pneumococcal resistence: a report from the Drug-Resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae Therapeutic Working Group. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160:1399-408.
117. Threlkeld SC, Hooper DC. Update on management of patients with Noacardia infection. Curr Clin Topics Infect Dis. 1997;17:1-23.
118. Drancourt M, Bonnet E, Gallais H, Peloux Y, Raoult D. Rhodococcus equi infection in patients with AIDS. J Infect. 1992;24:123-31.
119. Fiaccadori F, Elia Gf, Calzetti C, Degli Antoni A, Magnani G. Rhodococcus equi infection in HIV-positive patients: Report of 5 cases and literature overview. Arch Chest Dis. 1994;49:380-8.
120. Angulo FJ, Swerdlow DL. Bacterial enteric infections in persons infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Infect Dis. 1995;21 (Suppl 1):84-93.
121. Nelson MR, Shanson DC, Hawkins DA, Gazzard BG. Salmonella, Campylobacter and Shigella in HIV-seropositive patients. AIDS. 1992;6:1495-8.
122. Guerrant RL, Van Gilder T, Steiner TS, Thielman NH, Slutsker L, Tauxe RV, et al. Practice guidelines for the management of infections diarrhea. Clin Infect Dis. 2001;32:331-51.
123. Meier PA, Dooley DP, Jorgensen JH, Sanders CC, Huang WM, Patterson JE. Development of quinolone-resistant Campylobacter fetus bacteriemia in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. J Infect Dis. 1998;177:951-4.
124. Baer JT, Vugia DJ, Reingold AL, Aragon T, Angulo FJ, Bradford WZ. HIV infection as a risk factor for shigellosis. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999;5:820-3.
125. Kristjansson M, Viner B, Maslow JN. Polymicrobial and recurrent bacteriemia with Shigella in a patient with AIDS. Scand J Infect Dis. 1994;26:411-6.
126. Peláez T, Alcalá L, Alonso R, Rodríguez- Créixems M, García-Lechuz JM, Bouza E. Reassessment of Clostridium difficile susceptibility to metronidazole and vancomycin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2002;46:1647-50.
127. Blocker ME, Levine WC, St Louis ME. HIV prevalence in patients with syphilis, United States. Sex Transm Dis. 2000;27:53-7.
128. Radolf J, Kaplan R. Unusual manifestations of secondary syphilis and abnormal humoral immune response to Treponema pallidum antigens in a homosexual man with asymptomatic human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1988;18(2 Pt2):423-8.
129. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance, 2004. Atlanta GA: US Department of Health and Human Services; 2005.
130. Golden MR, Marra CM, Colmes KK. Update on syphilis: resurgence of an old problem. JAMA. 2003;290:1510-4.
131. Gordon SM, Eaton ME, George R, Larsen S, Lukehart SA, Kuypers J, et al. The response of syntomatic neurosyphilis to high-dose intravenous penicillin G in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med. 1994;331:1469-73.
132. Rolfs RT, Joesoef MR, Hendershot EF, Rompalo AM, Augenbraun MH, Chiu M, et al. A randomized trial of enhanced therapy for early syphilis in patients with or without human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med. 1997;337:307-14.
133. Koehler JE, Sánchez MA, Tye S, Garrido-Rowland CS, Chen FM, Maurer T. Prevalence of Bartonella infection among human immunodeficiency virus infected patients with fever. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;37:559-66.
134. Decker CF, Simon GL, DiGioia RA, Tuazon CU. Listeria monocytogenes infections in patients with AIDS: Report of five cases and review. Rev Infect Dis. 1991;13:413-7.
135. Merle-Melet M, Dossou-Gbete L, Maurer P, Meyer P, Lozniewski A, Kuntzburger O, et al. Is Amoxicillin-Cotrimoxazole the most appropiate antibiotic regimen for Listeria meningoencephalitis? Review of 22 cases and the literature. J Infect. 1996;33:79-85.
136. Fung HB, Doan TL. Tinidazole: a nitroimidazole antiprotozoal agent. Clin Ther. 2005;27:1859-84.
137. Pehrson PO, Bengtsson EA long-term follow up study of amoebiasis treated with metronidazole. Scand J Infect Dis. 1984;16:195-8.
138. Drug for parasitic infections. The Medical Letter. 2007;5 Suppl:1-15.
139. Monga NK, Sood S, Kaushik SP, Sachdeva HS, Sood KC, Datta DV. Amebic peritonitis. Am J Gastroenterol. 1976;66:366-73.
140. Blessmann J, Binh HD, Hung DM, Tannich E, Burchard G. Treatment of amoebic liver abscess with metronidazole alone or in combination with ultrasound-guided needle aspiration: a comparative, prospective and randomized study. Trop Med Int Health. 2003;8:1030-4.
141. Khoo S, Back D, Winstanley P. The potential for interactions between antimalarial and antiretroviral drugs. AIDS. 2005;19:995-1005.
142. Cahn P, Badaró R, Freilij H, Crowe S, Hoy J, Mills J. Other parasitic infections, Management of the HIV-infected patient. Martin Dunitz Editors UK. 2002.
143. De Andrade AL, Zicker F, De Oliveira RM, Almeida Silva S, Luquetti A, Travassos LR, et al. Randomised trial of efficacy of benznidazole in treatment of early Trypanosoma cruzi infection. Lancet. 1996;348:1407-13.
144. McCabe RE, Remington JS, Araujo FG. In vitro and in vivo effects of itraconazole against Trypanosoma cruzi. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1986;35:280-4.
145. World Health Organization: Control and surveillance of African Trypanosomiasis. WHO Technical Report Series No 881. Geneva. 1998.
146. Pepin J, Mpia B. Randomized controlled trial of three regimens of melarsoprol in the treatment of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense trypanosomiasis. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 2006;100:437-41.
147. Pepin J, Milord F, Guern C, Mpia B, Ethier L, Mansinsa D. Trial of prednisolone for prevention of melarsoprol-induced encephalopathy in gambiense sleeping sickness. Lancet. 1989;1:1246-50.
148. Pape JW, Verdier RI, Boncy M, Boncy J, Johnson WD. Cyclospora infection in adults infected with HIV: Clinical manifestations, treatment, and prophylaxis. Ann Intern Med. 1994;121:654-7.
149. Keiser PB, Nutman TB. Strongyloides stercoralis in the Immunocompromised Population. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2004;17:208-17.
150. Singthong S, Intapan PM, Wongsaroji T, Maleewong W. Randomized
151. Marti HP, Haji Hamad J, Savioli L, Chwaya HM, Mgeni AF, Ameir JS, et al. A comparative trial of a single-dose ivermectin versus three days of albendazole for treatment of strongyloides stercoralis and other soil-transmitted helminth infections in children. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1996;55:477-81.
152. Grandiere-Pérez L, Ansart S, Paris L, Faussart A, Jauraguiberry S, Grivois JP, et al. Efficay of paziquantel during the incubation and invasive phase of Schistosoma haematobium schistosomiasis in 18 travelers. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2006;74:814-8.
153. García HH, Pretell EJ, Gilman RH, Martínez SM, Moulton LH, Del Brutto OH, et al. A trial of antiparasitic treatment to reduce the rate of seizures due to cerebral cysticercosis. N Engl J Med. 2004;350:249-58.
154. Del Brutto OH, Roos Karen L, Coffey CS, García HH. Meta-analysis: Cysticidal drugs for neurocysticercosis: albendazole and praziquantel. Ann Intern Med. 2006;145:43-51.
155. Góngora-Rivera F, Soto-Hernández JL, González Esquivel D, Cook HJ, Márquez-Caraveo C, Hernández Dávila R, et al. Albendazole trial at 15 or 30 mg/kg/day for subarachnoid and intraventricular cysticercosis. Neurology. 2006;66:436-8.
156. Udall DN. Recent updates on onchocerciasis: diagnosis and treatment. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:53-60.
157. Klion AD, Ottesen EA, Nutman TB. Effectiveness of diethylcarbamazine in treating loiasis acquired by expatriate visitors to endemic regions: long-term follow-up. J Infect Dis. 1994;169:604-10.
158. Martin-Prevel Y, Cosnefroy JY, Ngari P, Pinder M. Reduction of microfilaraemia with single high-dose of ivermectin in loiasis. Lancet. 1993;342:442.
159. Tabi TE, Befidi-Mengue R, Nutman TB, Horton J, Folefack A, Pensia E, et al. Human loiasis in a Cameroonian village: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover clinical trial of a three-day albendazole regimen. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2004;71:211-5.
160. Taylor MJ, Makunde WH, McGarry HF, Turner JD, Mand S, Hoerauf A. Macrofilaricidal activity after doxycycline treatment of Wuchereria bancrofti: a double-blind, randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2005;365:2116-21.
161. Lipani F, Caramello P, Biglino A, Sacchi C. Albendazole for the treatment of Mansonella perstans filariasis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1997;91:221.
162. González AA, Chadee DD, Rawlins SC. Ivermectin treatment of mansonellosis in Trinidad. West Indian Med J. 1999;48:231-4.
163. Manzardo C, Zaccarelli M, Agüero F, Antinori A, Miró JM. Optimal timing and best antiretroviral regimen in treatment-naive HIV-infected individuals with advanced disease. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2007;46 Suppl 1:S9-18.
164. Dhasmana DJ, Dheda K, Ravn P, Wilkinson RJ, Meintjes G. Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in HIV-infected patients receiving antiretroviral therapy: Pathogenesis, clinical manifestations and management. Drugs. 2008;68:191-208.
165. Murdoch DM, Venter WD, Van Rie A, Feldman C. Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS): Review of common infectious manifestations and treatment options. AIDS Res Ther. 2007;4:9.
166. Zolopa A, Andersen J, Komarow L, Sánchez A, Suckow C, Sanne I, et al. Immediate vs deferred ART in the setting of acute AIDS-related opportunistic infection: Final results of a randomized strategy trial, ACTG A5164. 15th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, Boston MA, USA, February 3-6. 2008; Abstract P142.
167. Egger M, May M, Chene G, Phillips AN, Ledergerber B, Dabis F, et al. Prognosis of HIV-1-infected patients starting highly active antiretroviral therapy: a collaborative analysis of prospective studies. Lancet. 2002;360:119-29.
168. French MA, Price P. Immune restoration disease after antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 2004;18:1615-27.
169. Gardner EM, Connick E. Illness of Immune Reconstitution: Recognition and Management. Curr Infect Dis Rep. 2004;6.
170. Shelburne SA, Hamili RJ. The immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome. AIDS Rev. 2003;5: 67-9.
171. Collazos J, Mayo J, Martínez E, Blanco MS. Contrast-enhancing progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy as an immune reconstitution event in AIDS patients. AIDS. 1999;13:1426-8.
172. Deayton JR, Wilson P, Sabin CA, Darey CC, Johson MA, Emery VC, et al. Changes in the natural history of cytomegalovirus retinitis following the introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 2000;14:1163-70.
173. Jenny-Avital ER, Abadi M. Immune reconstitution cryptococcosis after initiation of successful highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;35:e128-33.
174. Lawn SD, Bekker LG, Miller RF. Immune reconstitution disease associated with mycobacterial infections in HIV-infected individuals receiving antiretrovirals. Lancet Infect Dis. 2005;5:361-73.
175. Wit FW, Weverling GJ, Weel J, Jurriaans S, Lange JM. Incidence of and risk factors for severe hepatotoxicity associated with antiretroviral combination therapy. J Infect Dis. 2002;186:23-31.
176. Lawn SD. Immune reconstitution disease associated with parasitic infections following initiation of antiretroviral therapy. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2007;20:482-8.
177. Powles T, Thirlwell C, Nelson M, et al. Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome mimicking relapse of AIDS related lymphoma in patients with HIV 1 infection. Leuk Lymphoma. 2003;44:1417-9.
178. Knysz B, Zalewska M, Rzeszutko M, Gadysz A. Lung cancer as an immune reconstitution disease in an HIV-1 positive man receiving HAART. Postepy Hig Med Dosw (Online). 2006;60:181-3.
179. Calabrese LH, Kirchner E, Shrestha R. Rheumatic complications of human immunodeficiency virus infection in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy: Emergence of a new syndrome of immune reconstitution and changing patterns of disease. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 2005;35:166-74.
180. Crum NF, Ganesan A, Johns ST, Wallace MR. Graves disease: An increasingly recognized immune reconstitution syndrome. AIDS. 2006;20:466-9.
181. Hirsch HH, Kaufmann G, Sendi P, Battegay M. Immune reconstitution in HIV-infected patients. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;38:1159-66.
182. Shelburne SA, Montes M, Hamill RJ. Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome: more answers, more questions. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2006;57:167-70.
183. Cinque P, Pierotti C, Viganò MG, Bestetti A, Fausti C, Bertelli D, et al. The good and the evil of HAART in HIV-related progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. J Neurovirol. 2001;7:358-63.
184. Lortholary O, Fontanet A, Mémain N, Martin A, Sitbon K, Dromer F, et al. Incidence and risk factors of immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome complicating HIV-associated cryptococcosis in France. AIDS. 2005;19:1043-9.
185. Biosca G, Casallo S, López-Vélez R. Methotrexate treatment for type 1 (reversal) leprosy reactions. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45:e7-9.
186. Wallis RS, Kyambadde P, Johnson JL, Horter L, Kittle R, Pohle M, et al. A study of the safety, immunology, virology, and microbiology of adjunctive etanercept in HIV-1-associated tuberculosis. AIDS. 2004;18:257-64.
187. Gori A, Rossi MC, Marchetti G, Trabattoni D, Molteni C, Cogliati M, et al. Clinical and immunological benefit of adjuvant therapy with thalidomide in the treatment of tuberculosis disease. AIDS. 2000;14:1859-61.
188. Reeves GE, Ferguson JK, Dobson P, Boyle MJ. Pentoxifylline to treat Mycobacterium avium complex exacerbation in late-stage HIV infection. Med J Aust. 1997;166:446.
189. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Treating Opportunistic Infections Among HIV-Infected Adults and Adolescents: recommendations from CDC, the National Institutes of Health, and the HIV Medicine Association/Infectious Diseases Society of America. MMWR. 2004;53:1-112.