Clinical and therapeutic issues for herpes simplex virus-2 and HIV co-infection

Drugs

Volumn 67, Issue 2, 2007, Pages 155-174

  Lingappa, Jairam R ^a,b   Celum, Connie ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

^b NONE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACICLOVIR; CIDOFOVIR; FAMCICLOVIR; FOSCARNET; NUCLEOSIDE; PENCICLOVIR; PROBENECID; SODIUM CHLORIDE; TRIFLURIDINE; VALACICLOVIR;

CLINICAL TRIAL; CREATININE BLOOD LEVEL; CYTOMEGALOVIRUS INFECTION; DIARRHEA; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DRUG DOSE REGIMEN; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG UTILIZATION; EPIDEMIC; FLUSHING; GENITAL HERPES; GLUCOSURIA; HEADACHE; HERPES SIMPLEX; HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUS 2; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTED PATIENT; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; HYDRATION; KERATOCONJUNCTIVITIS; KIDNEY FAILURE; LABORATORY TEST; NAUSEA; NEPHROTOXICITY; NONHUMAN; PATIENT COMPLIANCE; PROTEINURIA; RECOMMENDED DRUG DOSE; RECURRENT INFECTION; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; VIRUS DIAGNOSIS; VIRUS REACTIVATION; VIRUS RESISTANCE; VIRUS SHEDDING; VIRUS TRANSMISSION;

ANTIVIRAL AGENTS; DRUG RESISTANCE, VIRAL; FEMALE; HERPES GENITALIS; HIV INFECTIONS; HUMANS; MALE; VIRUS SHEDDING;

HERPES; HERPESVIRIDAE; HUMAN HERPESVIRUS 2; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS 1;

EID: 33846997164     PISSN: 00126667     EISSN: 00126667     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2165/00003495-200767020-00001     Document Type: Review

References (178)

1. Corey L, Spear PG. Infections with herpes simplex viruses (1). N Engl J Med 1986; 314 (11): 686-91
2. Nahmias AJ, Roizman B. Infection with herpes-simplex viruses 1 and 2. 1. N Engl J Med 1973; 289 (13): 667-74
3. Christie SN, McCaughey C, McBride M, et al. Herpes simplex type 1 and genital herpes in Northern Ireland. Int J STD AIDS 1997; 8 (1): 68-9
4. Lafferty WE. The changing epidemiology of HSV-1 and HSV-2 and implications for serological testing. Herpes 2002; 9 (2): 51-5
5. Wald A, Benedetti J, Davis G, et al. A randomized, double-blind, comparative trial comparing high- and standard-dose oral acyclovir for first-episode genital herpes infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1994; 38 (2): 174-6
6. Ahmed HJ, Mbwana J, Gunnarsson E, et al. Etiology of genital ulcer disease and association with human immunodeficiency virus infection in two Tanzanian cities. Sex Transm Dis 2003; 30 (2): 114-9
7. Chen CY, Ballard RC, Beck-Sague CM, et al. Human immunodeficiency virus infection and genital ulcer disease in South Africa: the herpetic connection. Sex Transm Dis 2000; 27 (1): 21-9
8. Mertz KJ, Trees D, Levine WC, et al. Etiology of genital ulcers and prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus coinfection in 10 US cities. The Genital Ulcer Disease Surveillance Group. J Infect Dis 1998; 178 (6): 1795-8
9. Morse SA. Etiology of genital ulcer disease and its relationship to HIV infection. Sex Transm Dis 1999; 26 (1): 63-5
10. Schacker T, Ryncarz AJ, Goddard J, et al. Frequent recovery of HIV-1 from genital herpes simplex virus lesions in HIV-1-infected men. JAMA 1998; 280 (1): 61-6
11. Wald A, Zeh J, Barnum G, et al. Suppression of subclinical shedding of herpes simplex virus type 2 with acyclovir. Ann Intern Med 1996; 124 (1 Pt 1): 8-15
12. Wald A, Zeh J, Selke S, et al. Virologic characteristics of subclinical and symptomatic genital herpes infections. N Engl J Med 1995; 333 (12): 770-5
13. Wald A, Zeh J, Selke S, et al. Reactivation of genital herpes simplex virus type 2 infection in asymptomatic seropositive persons. N Engl J Med 2000; 342 (12): 844-50
14. Corey L, Wald A, Celum CL, et al. The effects of herpes simplex virus-2 on HIV-1 acquisition and transmission: a review of two overlapping epidemics. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2004; 35 (5): 435-45
15. Gupta R, Wald A. Genital herpes: antiviral therapy for symptom relief and prevention of transmission. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2006; 7 (6): 665-75
16. Malkin JE. Epidemiology of genital herpes simplex virus infection in developed countries. Herpes 2004; 11 Suppl. 1: 2-23A
17. Weiss H. Epidemiology of herpes simplex virus type 2 infection in the developing world. Herpes 2004; 11 Suppl. 1: 24-35A
18. Corey L, Wald A. Genital herpes. In: Holmes K, Sparling PF, Mardh P-A, et al., editors. Sexually transmitted diseases. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1999
19. Xu F, McQuillan GM, Kottiri BJ, et al. National seroprevalence and trends in herpes simplex virus type 1 and type 2 infection in the United States, 1988-2000. In: 15th Biennial Congress of the International Society for Sexually Transmitted Diseases Research; 2003 Jul 27-30; Ottawa (ON). Ottawa (ON): ISSTDR, 2003: 58
20. Lai W, Chen CY, Morse SA, et al. Increasing relative prevalence of HSV-2 infection among men with genital ulcers from a mining community in South Africa. Sex Transm Infect 2003; 79 (3): 202-7
21. Siegal FP, Lopez C, Hammer GS, et al. Severe acquired immunodeficiency in male homosexuals, manifested by chronic perianal ulcerative herpes simplex lesions. N Engl J Med 1981; 305 (24): 1439-44
22. Celum C, Levine R, Weaver M, et al. Genital herpes and human immunodeficiency virus: double trouble. Bull World Health Organ 2004; 82 (6): 447-53
23. Wald A. Synergistic interactions between herpes simplex virus type-2 and human immunodeficiency virus epidemics. Herpes 2004; 11 (3): 70-6
24. Reynolds SJ, Quinn TC. Developments in STD/HIV interactions: the intertwining epidemics of HIV and HSV-2. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2005; 19 (2): 415-25
25. Wasserheit JN. Epidemiological synergy. Interrelationships between human immunodeficiency virus infection and other sexually transmitted diseases. Sex Transm Dis 1992; 19 (2): 61-77
26. Buchbinder SP, Katz MH, Hessol NA, et al. Herpes zoster and human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Infect Dis 1992; 166 (5): 1153-6
27. Holmberg SD, Gerber AR, Stewart JA, et al. Herpes simplex virus type 2 and HIV seroconversion. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1991; 4 (7): 732-4
28. Holmberg SD, Stewart JA, Gerber AR, et al. Prior herpes simplex virus type 2 infection as a risk factor for HIV infection. JAMA 1988; 259 (7): 1048-50
29. Stamm WE, Handsfield HH, Rompalo AM, et al. The association between genital ulcer disease and acquisition of HIV infection in homosexual men. Jama 1988; 260 (10): 1429-33
30. Freeman EE, Weiss HA, Glynn JR, et al. Herpes simplex virus 2 infection increases HIV acquisition in men and women: systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Aids 2006; 20 (1): 73-83
31. Kreiss JK, Coombs R, Plummer F, et al. Isolation of human immunodeficiency virus from genital ulcers in Nairobi prostitutes. J Infect Dis 1989; 160 (3): 380-4
32. Emonyi IW, Gray RH, Zenilman J, et al. Sero-prevalence of Herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) in Rakai district, Uganda. East Afr Med J 2000; 77 (8): 428-30
33. Gray RH, Wawer MJ, Brookmeyer R, et al. Probability of HIV-1 transmission per coital act in monogamous, heterosexual, HIV-1-discordant couples in Rakai, Uganda. Lancet 2001; 357 (9263): 1149-53
34. Serwadda D, Gray RH, Sewankambo NK, et al. Human immunodeficiency virus acquisition associated with genital ulcer disease and herpes simplex virus type 2 infection: a nested case-control study in Rakai, Uganda. J Infect Dis 2003; 188 (10): 1492-7
35. Freeman EE, Glynn JR, Study Group on Heterogeneity of HIV Epidemics in African Cities. Factors affecting HIV concordancy in married couples in four African cities. AIDS 2004; 18 (12): 1715-21
36. Brown EL, Wald A, Hughes JP, et al. High risk of human immunodeficiency virus in men who have sex with men with herpes simplex virus type 2 in the EXPLORE study. Am J Epidemiol 2006 Oct 15; 164 (8): 733-41
37. Celum CL, Robinson NJ, Cohen MS. Potential effect of HIV type 1 antiretroviral and herpes simplex virus type 2 antiviral therapy on transmission and acquisition of HIV type 1 infection. J Infect Dis 2005; 191 Suppl. 1: S107-14
38. Koelle DM, Posavad CM, Barnum GR, et al. Clearance of HSV-2 from recurrent genital lesions correlates with infiltration of HSV-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes. J Clin Invest 1998; 101 (7): 1500-8
39. Mosca JD, Bednarik DP, Raj NB, et al. Activation of human immunodeficiency virus by herpesvirus infection: identification of a region within the long terminal repeat that responds to a trans-acting factor encoded by herpes simplex virus 1. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1987; 84 (21): 7408-12
40. Ostrove JM, Leonard J, Weck KE, et al. Activation of the human immunodeficiency virus by herpes simplex virus type 1. J Virol 1987; 61 (12): 3726-32
41. Popik W, Pitha PM. Inhibition by interferon of herpes simplex virus type 1-activated transcription of tat-defective provirus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1991; 88 (21): 9573-7
42. Popik W, Pitha PM. Role of tumor necrosis factor alpha in activation and replication of the tat-defective human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Virol 1993; 67 (2): 1094-9
43. Diaz JJ, Dodon MD, Schaerer-Uthurralt N, et al. Post-transcriptional transactivation of human retroviral envelope glycoprotein expression by herpes simplex virus Us11 protein. Nature 1996; 379 (6562): 273-7
44. Mosca JD, Pitha PM, Hayward GS. Herpes simplex virus infection selectively stimulates accumulation of beta interferon reporter gene mRNA by a posttranscriptional mechanism. J Virol 1992; 66 (6): 3811-22
45. Palu G, Benetti L, Calistri A. Molecular basis of the interactions between herpes simplex viruses and HIV-1. Herpes 2001; 8 (2): 50-5
46. Moriuchi M, Moriuchi H, Williams R, et al. Herpes simplex virus infection induces replication of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Virology 2000; 278 (2): 534-40
47. Mogensen TH, Melchjorsen J, Malmgaard L, et al. Suppression of proinflammatory cytokine expression by herpes simplex virus type 1. J Virol 2004; 78 (11): 5883-90
48. Singh R, Kumar A, Creery WD, et al. Dysregulated expression of IFN-g and IL-10 and impaired IFN-g mediated responses at different disease stages in patients with genital herpes simplex virus-2 infection. Clin Exp Immunol 2003; 133: 97-107
49. Rebbapragada A, Petegell C, Sunderji S, et al. HSV2 and HIV interaction: negative synergy in the female genital tract. Keystone Symposia: HIV Pathogenesis; 2006 Mar 27-Apr 2; Keystone (CO), 117
50. Bryson Y, Dillon M, Bernstein DI, et al. Risk of acquisition of genital herpes simplex virus type 2 in sex partners of persons with genital herpes: a prospective couple study. J Infect Dis 1993; 167 (4): 942-6
51. Corey L, Holmes KK. Genital herpes simplex virus infections: current concepts in diagnosis, therapy, and prevention. Ann Intern Med 1983; 98 (6): 973-83
52. McFarland W, Gwanzura L, Bassett MT, et al. Prevalence and incidence of herpes simplex virus type 2 infection among male Zimbabwean factory workers. J Infect Dis 1999; 180 (5): 1459-65
53. Augenbraun M, Feldman J, Chirgwin K, et al. Increased genital shedding of herpes simplex virus type 2 in HIV-seropositive women. Ann Intern Med 1995; 123 (11): 845-7
54. Krone MR, Tabet SR, Paradise M, et al. Herpes simplex virus shedding among human immunodeficiency virus-negative men who have sex with men: site and frequency of shedding. J Infect Dis 1998; 178 (4): 978-82
55. Corey L, Adams HG, Brown ZA, et al. Genital herpes simplex infections: clinical manifestations, course, and complications. Ann Intern Med 1983; 98 (6): 958-72
56. Koutsky LA, Ashley RL, Holmes KK, et al. The frequency of unrecognized type 2 herpes simplex virus infection among women. Implications for the control of genital herpes. Sex Transm Dis 1990; 17 (2): 90-4
57. Koutsky LA, Stevens CE, Holmes KK, et al. Underdiagnosis of genital herpes by current clinical and viral-isolation procedures. N Engl J Med 1992; 326 (23): 1533-9
58. Bagdades EK, Pillay D, Squire SB, et al. Relationship between herpes simplex virus ulceration and CD4+ cell counts in patients with HIV infection. AIDS 1992; 6 (11): 1317-20
59. Gresenguet G, Weiss HA, Frost E, et al. Aetiology of genital ulcer disease among women in Ghana and Central African Republic: randomised trial of episodic acyclovir treatment in addition to syndromic management (ANSR 1212 Study) [abstract no. M0-605]. 16th meeting of the International Society for Sexually Transmitted Diseases Research; 2005 Jul 10-13; Amsterdam
60. Strick L, Wald A, Celum C. Management of herpes simplex virus type 2 infection in HIV type-1 infected persons. Clin Infect Dis 2006 Aug 1; 43 (3): 347-56
61. Herget GW, Riede UN, Schmitt-Graff A, et al. Generalized herpes simplex virus infection in an immunocompromised patient: report and review of the literature. Pathol Res Pract 2005; 201 (2): 123-9
62. Quinnan Jr GV, Masur H, Rook AH, et al. Herpesvirus infections in the acquired immune deficiency syndrome. JAMA 1984; 252 (1): 72-7
63. Stewart JA, Reef SE, Pellett PE, et al. Herpesvirus infections in persons infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Infect Dis 1995; 21 Suppl. 1: S114-20
64. Bernard E, Michiels JF, Saint-Paul MC, et al. Herpetic hepatitis in an AIDS patient. Presse Med 1994; 23 (3): 140
65. Calore EE. Herpes simplex type 2 pneumonia. Braz J Infect Dis 2002; 6 (6): 305-8
66. Gariano RF, Berreen JP, Cooney EL. Progressive outer retinal necrosis and acute retinal necrosis in fellow eyes of a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol 2001; 132 (3): 421-3
67. Gateley A, Gander RM, Johnson PC, et al. Herpes simplex virus type 2 meningoencephalitis resistant to acyclovir in a patient with AIDS. J Infect Dis 1990; 161 (4): 711-5
68. Grover D, Newsholme W, Brink N, et al. Herpes simplex virus infection of the central nervous system in human immunodeficiency virus-type 1-infected patients. Int J STD AIDS 2004; 15 (9): 597-600
69. Marks GL, Nolan PE, Erlich KS, et al. Mucocutaneous dissemination of acyclovir-resistant herpes simplex virus in a patient with AIDS. Rev Infect Dis 1989; 11 (3): 474-6
70. Sacks SL, Wanklin RJ, Reece DE, et al. Progressive esophagitis from acyclovir-resistant herpes simplex: clinical roles for DNA polymerase mutants and viral heterogeneity? Ann Intern Med 1989; 111 (11): 893-9
71. Umar SH, Kanth A. Disseminated cutaneous herpes simplex virus type-1 with interstitial pneumonia as a first presentation of AIDS. J Natl Med Assoc 1999; 91 (8): 471-4
72. Yang CM, Wang WW, Lin CP. Progressive outer retinal necrosis syndrome as an early manifestation of human immutions. nodeficiency virus infection. J Formos Med Assoc 1999; 98 (2): 141-4
73. Lafferty W, Coombs R, Benedetti J, et al. Recurrences after oral and genital herpes simplex virus infection: influence of anatomic site and viral type. N Engl J Med 1987; 316: 1444-9
74. Ramaswamy M, McDonald C, Smith M, et al. Diagnosis of genital herpes by real time PCR in routine clinical practice. Sex Transm Infect 2004; 80 (5): 406-10
75. Strick LB, Wald A. Newer diagnostics for HSV: is HSV culture still the gold standard? Mol Diag Ther 2006; 10 (1): 17-28
76. Wald A, Huang ML, Carrell D, et al. Polymerase chain reaction for detection of herpes simplex virus (HSV) DNA on mucosal surfaces: comparison with HSV isolation in cell culture. J Infect Dis 2003; 188 (9): 1345-51
77. Corey L. Challenges in genital herpes simplex virus management. J Infect Dis 2002; 186 Suppl. 1: S29-33
78. Ashley R. Type-specific antibodies to HSV-1 and -2: review of methodology. Herpes 1998; 5: 33-8
79. Liljeqvest J, Trybala E, Svennerholm B, et al. Localization of type-specific epitopes of herpes simplex virus type 2 glycoprotein G recognized by human and mouse antibodies. J Gen Virol 1998; 79: 1215-24
80. Marsden H, MacAulay K, Murray J, et al. Identification of an immunodominant sequential epitope in glycoprotein G of herpes simplex virus type 2 that is useful for serotype-specific diagnosis. J Med Virol 1998; 56: 79-84
81. Turnback P, Liljeqvest J, Lowhagen G, et al. Glycoprotein G of herpes simplex type 1: identification of type-specific epitopes by human antibodies. J Gen Virol 2000; 81: 1033-40
82. Arvin A, Prober C. Herpes simples viruses. In: Murray P, Baron E, Pfaller M, et al., editors. Manual of clinical microbiology. 6th ed. Washington, DC: ASM, 1995: 876-83
83. Ashley R. Performance and use of HSV type-specific serology test kits. Herpes 2002; 9 (2): 38-45
84. Morrow R, Friedrich D. Inaccuracy of certain commercial enzyme immunoassays in diagnosing genital infections with herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2. Am J Clin Pathol 2003; 120 (6): 839-44
85. Ashley R, Pickering N, Wei S, et al. Early diagnosis of first episode genital herpes simplex virus (HSV) infection by enzyme immunoassay (EIA) for type-specific IgM antibodies [abstract no. C-392]. 98th Annual Meeting of the American Society for Microbiology; 1998 MAy 17-21; Washington, DC: 196
86. Leach C, Ashley R, Baillargeon J, et al. Performance of two commercial glycoprotein g-based enzyme immunoassays for detecting antibodies to herpes simplex virus 1 and 2 in children and young adolescents. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 2002; 9 (5): 1124-5
87. Strick L, Wald A. Type-specific testing for herpes simplex virus. Expert Rev Mol Diagn 2004; 4 (4): 443-53
88. Lafferty WE, Downey L, Celum C, et al. Herpes simplex virus type 1 as a cause of genital herpes: impact on surveillance and prevention. J Infect Dis 2000; 181 (4): 1454-7
89. Coyle PV, O'Neill HJ, Wyatt DE, et al. Emergence of herpes simplex type 1 as the main cause of recurrent genital ulcerative disease in women in Northern Ireland. J Clin Virol 2003; 27 (1): 22-9
90. Samra Z, Scherf E, Dan M. Herpes simplex virus type 1 is the prevailing cause of genital herpes in the Tel Aviv area, Israel. Sex Transm Dis 2003; 30 (10): 794-6
91. Tran T, Druce JD, Catton MC, et al. Changing epidemiology of genital herpes simplex virus infection in Melbourne, Australia, between 1980 and 2003. Sex Transm Infect 2004; 80 (4): 277-9
92. Benedetti J, Corey L, Ashley R. Recurrence rates in genital herpes after symptomatic first-episode infection. Ann Intern Med 1994; 121 (11): 847-54
93. Kim HN, Meier A, Huang M. Oral herpes simplex type 1 (HSV-11) reactivation in HIV-negative and HIV-positive men. J Infect Dis 2006. In press
94. Kimberlin DW, Coen DM, Biron KK, et al. Molecular mechanisms of antiviral resistance. Antiviral Res 1995; 26 (4): 369-401
95. Crumpacker CS, Schnipper LE, Zaia JA, et al. Growth inhibition by acycloguanosine of herpesviruses isolated from human infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1979; 15 (5): 642-5
96. Schacker T, Hu HL, Koelle DM, et al. Famciclovir for the suppression of symptomatic and asymptomatic herpes simplex virus reactivation in HIV-infected persons: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 1998; 128 (1): 21-8
97. Conant MA, Schacker TW, Murphy RL, et al. Valaciclovir versus aciclovir for herpes simplex virus infection in HIV-infected individuals: two randomized trials. Int J STD AIDS 2002; 13 (1): 12-21
98. Romanowski B, Aoki FY, Martel AY, et al. Efficacy and safety of famciclovir for treating mucocutaneous herpes simplex infection in HIV-infected individuals. Collaborative Famciclovir HIV Study Group. Aids 2000; 14 (9): 1211-7
99. DeJesus E, Wald A, Warren T, et al. Valacyclovir for the suppression of recurrent genital herpes in human immunodeficiency virus-infected subjects. J Infect Dis 2003; 188 (7): 1009-16
100. Nagot N, Ouedraogo A, Mayaud P, et al. Effect of HSV-2 suppressive therapy on HIV-1 genital shedding and plasma viral load: a proof of concept randomized double-blind placebo controlled trial (ANRS 1285 Trial) [abstract no. 33LB]. 13th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections; 2006 Feb 5-8; Denver (CO)
101. Ouedraogo A, Nagot N, Vergne L, et al. Impact of suppressive herpes therapy on genital HIV-1 RNA among women taking antiretroviral therapy: a randomised controlled trial. AIDS 2006 Nov 28; 20 (18): 2305-13
102. de Miranda P, Blum MR. Pharmacokinetics of acyclovir after intravenous and oral administration. J Antimicrob Chemother 1983; 12 Suppl. B: 29-37
103. Purifoy DJ, Beauchamp LM, de Miranda P, et al. Review of research leading to new anti-herpesvirus agents in clinical development: valaciclovir hydrochloride (256U, the L-valyl ester of acyclovir) and 882C, a specific agent for varicella zoster virus. J Med Virol 1993; Suppl. 1: 139-45
104. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines 2006. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. MMWR Recomm Rep 2006 Aug 4; 55 (RR-11): 1-94
105. Kaplowitz LG, Baker D, Gelb L, et al. Prolonged continuous acyclovir treatment of normal adults with frequently recurring genital herpes simplex virus infection. The Acyclovir Study Group. JAMA 1991; 265 (6): 747-51
106. Keeney RE, Kirk LE, Bridgen D. Acyclovir tolerance in humans. Am J Med 1982; 73 (1A): 176-81
107. Tilson HH, Engle CR, Andrews EB. Safety of acyclovir: a summary of the first 10 years experience. J Med Virol 1993; Suppl. 1: 67-73
108. Tucker Jr WE. Preclinical toxicology profile of acyclovir: an overview. Am J Med 1982; 73 (1A): 27-30
109. Andrews EB, Yankaskas BC, Cordero JF, et al. Acyclovir in pregnancy registry: six years' experience. The Acyclovir in Pregnancy Registry Advisory Committee. Obstet Gynecol 1992; 79 (1): 7-13
110. Brown ZA, Baker DA. Acyclovir therapy during pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 1989; 73 (3 Pt 2): 526-31
111. Horowitz GM, Hankins GD. Early-second-trimester use of acyclovir in treating herpes zoster in a bone marrow transplant patient: a case report. J Reprod Med 1992; 37 (3): 280-2
112. Spangler JG, Kirk JK, Knudson MP. Uses and safety of acyclovir in pregnancy. J Fam Pract 1994; 38 (2): 186-91
113. Reiff-Eldridge R, Heffner CR, Ephross SA, et al. Monitoring pregnancy outcomes after prenatal drug exposure through prospective pregnancy registries: a pharmaceutical company commitment. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000; 182 (1 Pt 1): 159-63
114. Stone KM, Reiff-Eldridge R, White AD, et al. Pregnancy outcomes following systemic prenatal acyclovir exposure: conclusions from the international acyclovir pregnancy registry, 1984-1999. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol 2004; 70 (4): 201-7
115. ACOG. ACOG practice bulletin: management of herpes in pregnancy. Number 8 October 1999. Clinical management guidelines for obstetrician-gynecologists. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 2000; 68 (2): 165-73
116. Kleymann G. Agents and strategies in development for improved management of herpes simplex virus infection and disease. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2005; 14 (2): 135-61
117. Bianchetti MG, Roduit C, Oetliker OH. Acyclovir-induced renal failure: course and risk factors. Pediatr Nephrol 1991; 5 (2): 238-9
118. Peterslund NA, Larsen ML, Mygind H. Acyclovir crystalluria. Scand J Infect Dis 1988; 20 (2): 225-8
119. Sawyer MH, Webb DE, Balow JE, et al. Acyclovir-induced renal failure: clinical course and histology. Am J Med 1988; 84 (6): 1067-71
120. Almond MK, Fan S, Dhillon S, et al. Avoiding acyclovir neurotoxicity in patients with chronic renal failure undergoing haemodialysis. Nephron 1995; 69 (4): 428-32
121. Blum MR, Liao SH, de Miranda P. Overview of acyclovir pharmacokinetic disposition in adults and children. Am J Med 1982; 73 (1A): 186-92
122. Corey L, Wald A, Patel R, et al. Once-daily valacyclovir to reduce the risk of transmission of genital herpes. N Engl J Med 2004; 350 (1): 11-20
123. de Miranda P, Burnette TC. Metabolic fate and pharmacokinetics of the acyclovir prodrug valaciclovir in cynomolgus monkeys. Drug Metab Dispos 1994; 22 (1): 55-9
124. Reitano M, Tyring S, Lang W, et al. Valaciclovir for the suppression of recurrent genital herpes simplex virus infection: a large-scale dose range-finding study. International Valaciclovir HSV Study Group. J Infect Dis 1998; 178 (3): 603-10
125. Tyring SK, Baker D, Snowden W. Valacyclovir for herpes simplex virus infection: long-term safety and sustained efficacy after 20 years' experience with acyclovir. J Infect Dis 2002; 186 Suppl. 1: S40-6
126. Bell WR, Chulay JD, Feinberg JE. Manifestations resembling thrombotic microangiopathy in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) disease in a cytomegalovirus prophylaxis trial (ACTG 204). Medicine (Baltimore) 1997; 76 (5): 369-80
127. Pue MA, Pratt SK, Fairless AJ, et al. Linear pharmacokinetics of penciclovir following administration of single oral doses of famciclovir 125, 250, 500 and 750mg to healthy volunteers. J Antimicrob Chemother 1994; 33 (1): 119-27
128. Kucers A, Crowe SM, Grayson ML, et al. The use of antibiotics. 5th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1997: 1548
129. Saltzman R, Jurewicz R, Boon R. Safety of famciclovir in patients with herpes zoster and genital herpes. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1994; 38 (10): 2454-7
130. Gill KS, Wood MJ. The clinical pharmacokinetics of famciclovir. Clin Pharmacokinet 1996; 31 (1): 1-8
131. Boyd M. Update on famciclovir. In: Mills J, Corey L, editors. Antiviral chemotherapy: new directions for clinical application and research. Upper Saddle River (NJ): Prentice Hall, 1993: 83
132. Earnshaw DL, Bacon TH, Darlison SJ, et al. Mode of antiviral action of penciclovir in MRC-5 cells infected with herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), HSV-2, and varicella-zoster virus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1992; 36 (12): 2747-57
133. Kucers A, Crowe SM, Grayson ML, et al. The use of antibiotics. 5th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1997: 1631
134. Helgstrand E, Eriksson B, Johansson NG, et al. Trisodium phosphonoformate, a new antiviral compound. Science 1978; 201 (4358): 819-21
135. Stridh S, Helgstrand E, Lannero B, et al. The effect of pyrophosphate analogues on influenza virus RNA polymerase and influenza virus multiplication. Arch Virol 1979; 61 (3): 245-50
136. Wagstaff AJ, Bryson HM. Foscarnet: a reappraisal of its antiviral activity, pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic use in immunocompromised patients with viral infections. Drugs 1994; 48 (2): 199-226
137. Wagstaff AJ, Faulds D, Goa KL. Aciclovir: a reappraisal of its antiviral activity, pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic efficacy. Drugs 1994; 47 (1): 153-205
138. Deray G, Martinez F, Katlama C, et al. Foscarnet nephrotoxicity: mechanism, incidence and prevention. Am J Nephrol 1989; 9 (4): 316-21
139. Nyberg G, Svalander C, Blohme I, et al. Tubulointerstitial nephritis caused by the antiviral agent foscarnet. Transpl Int 1989; 2 (4): 223-7
140. Javaly K, Wohlfeiler M, Kalayjian R, et al. Treatment of mucocutaneous herpes simplex virus infections unresponsive to acyclovir with topical foscarnet cream in AIDS patients: a phase I/II study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1999; 21 (4): 301-6
141. Lea AP, Bryson HM. Cidofovir. Drugs 1996; 52 (2): 225-30, discussion 231
142. Cundy KC, Petty BG, Flaherty J, et al. Clinical pharmacokinetics of cidofovir in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1995; 39 (6): 1247-52
143. Lalezari JP, Drew WL, Glutzer E, et al. (S)-1-[3-hydroxy-2- (phosphonylmethoxy)propyl]cytosine (cidofovir): results of a phase I/II study of a novel antiviral nucleotide analogue. J Infect Dis 1995; 171 (4): 788-96
144. Perazella MA. Drug-induced renal failure: update on new medications and unique mechanisms of nephrotoxicity. Am J Med Sci 2003; 325 (6): 349-62
145. Lalezari J, Schacker T, Feinberg J, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of cidofovir gel for the treatment of acyclovir-unresponsive mucocutaneous herpes simplex virus infection in patients with AIDS. J Infect Dis 1997; 176 (4): 892-8
146. Kessler HA, Hurwitz S, Farthing C, et al. Pilot study of topical trifluridine for the treatment of acyclovir-resistant mucocutaneous herpes simplex disease in patients with AIDS (ACTG 172). AIDS Clinical Trials Group. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 1996; 12 (2): 147-52
147. Murphy M, Morley A, Eglin RP, et al. Topical trifluridine for mucocutaneous acyclovir-resistant herpes simplex II in AIDS patient. Lancet 1992; 340 (8826): 1040
148. Bryson YJ, Dillon M, Lovett M, et al. Treatment of first episodes of genital herpes simplex virus infection with oral acyclovir: a randomized double-blind controlled trial in norted mal subjects. N Engl J Med 1983; 308 (16): 916-21
149. Mertz GJ, Critchlow CW, Benedetti J, et al. Double-blind placebo-controlled trial of oral acyclovir in first-episode genital herpes simplex virus infection. JAMA 1984; 252 (9): 1147-51
150. Wald A, Carrell D, Remington M, et al. Two-day regimen of acyclovir for treatment of recurrent genital herpes simplex virus type 2 infection. Clin Infect Dis 2002; 34 (7): 944-8
151. Corey L, Benedetti J, Critchlow C, et al. Treatment of primary first-episode genital herpes simplex virus infections with acyclovir: results of topical, intravenous and oral therapy. J Antimicrob Chemother 1983; 12 Suppl. B: 79-88
152. Bodsworth NJ, Crooks RJ, Borelli S, et al. Valaciclovir versus aciclovir in patient initiated treatment of recurrent genital herpes: a randomised, double blind clinical trial. International Valaciclovir HSV Study Group. Genitourin Med 1997; 73 (2): 110-6
153. Chosidow O, Drouault Y, Leconte-Veyriac F, et al. Famciclovir vs. aciclovir in immunocompetent patients with recurrent genital herpes infections: a parallel-groups, randomized, double-blind clinical trial. Br J Dermatol 2001; 144 (4): 818-24
154. Sacks SL, Aoki FY, Diaz-Mitoma F, et al. Patient-initiated, twice-daily oral famciclovir for early recurrent genital herpes: a randomized, double-blind multicenter trial. Canadian Famciclovir Study Group. JAMA 1996; 276 (1): 44-9
155. Saiag P, Praindhui D, Chastang C. A double-blind, randomized study assessing the equivalence of valacyclovir 1000mg once daily versus 500mg twice daily in the episodic treatment of recurrent genital herpes. Genival Study Group. J Antimicrob Chemother 1999; 44 (4): 525-31
156. Spruance SL, Tyring SK, DeGregorio B, et al. A large-scale, placebo-controlled, dose-ranging trial of peroral valaciclovir for episodic treatment of recurrent herpes genitalis. Valaciclovir HSV Study Group. Arch Intern Med 1996; 156 (15): 1729-35
157. Strand A, Patel R, Wulf HC, et al. Aborted genital herpes simplex virus lesions: findings from a randomised controlled trial with valaciclovir. Sex Transm Infect 2002; 78 (6): 435-9
158. Tyring SK, Douglas Jr JM, Corey L, et al. A randomized, placebo-controlled comparison of oral valacyclovir and acyclovir in immunocompetent patients with recurrent genital herpes infections. The Valaciclovir International Study Group. Arch Dermatol 1998; 134 (2): 185-91
159. Aoki FY, Tyring S, Diaz-Mitoma F, et al. Single-day, patient-initiated famciclovir therapy for recurrent genital herpes: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 42 (1): 8-13
160. Goldberg LH, Kaufman R, Kurtz TO, et al. Long-term suppression of recurrent genital herpes with acyclovir: a 5-year benchmark. Acyclovir Study Group. Arch Dermatol 1993; 129 (5): 582-7
161. Douglas JM, Critchlow C, Benedetti J, et al. A double-blind study of oral acyclovir for suppression of recurrences of genital herpes simplex virus infection. N Engl J Med 1984; 310 (24): 1551-6
162. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmited diseases treatment guidelines 2002. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. MMWR Recomm Rep 2002; 51 (RR-6): 1-78
163. Mindel A, Faherty A, Carney O, et al. Dosage and safety of long-term suppressive acyclovir therapy for recurrent genital herpes. Lancet 1988; 1 (8591): 926-8
164. Ioannidis JP, Collier AC, Cooper DA, et al. Clinical efficacy of high-dose acyclovir in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection: a meta-analysis of randomized individual patient data. J Infect Dis 1998; 178 (2): 349-59
165. ClinicalTrials.gov. Identifier NCT00076232: a phase III, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of acyclovir for the reduction of HIV acquisition among high-risk HSV-2 seropositive, HIV seronegative individuals [online]. Available from URL: http://www.ClinicalTrials.gov [Accessed 2006 Dec 12]
166. ClinicalTrials.gov. Identifier NCT00194519: phase III randomized placebo-controlled trial of HSV-2 suppression to prevent HIV transmission among HIV-discordant couples [online]. Available from URL: http://www.ClinicalTrials. gov [Accessed 2006 Dec 12]
167. Field HJ. Persistent herpes simplex virus infection and mechanisms of virus drug resistance. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1989; 8 (8): 671-80
168. Fife KH, Crumpacker CS, Mertz GJ, et al. Recurrence and resistance patterns of herpes simplex virus following cessation of > or = 6 years of chronic suppression with acyclovir. Acyclovir Study Group. J Infect Dis 1994; 169 (6): 1338-41
169. Bacon TH, Boon RJ, Schultz M, et al. Surveillance for antiviral-agent-resistant herpes simplex virus in the general population with recurrent herpes labialis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2002; 46 (9): 3042-4
170. Sande MA, Armstrong D, Corey L, et al. Perspectives on switching oral acyclovir from prescription to over-the-counter status: report of a consensus panel. Clin Infect Dis 1998; 26 (3): 659-63
171. Danve-Szatanek C, Aymard M, Thouvenot D, et al. Surveillance network for herpes simplex virus resistance to antiviral drugs: 3-year follow-up. J Clin Microbiol 2004; 42 (1): 242-9
172. Boon RJ, Bacon TH, Robey HL, et al. Antiviral susceptibilities of herpes simplex virus from immunocompetent subjects with recurrent herpes labialis: a UK-based survey. J Antimicrob Chemother 2000; 46 (6): 1051
173. Christophers J, Clayton J, Craske J, et al. Survey of resistance of herpes simplex virus to acyclovir in Northwest England. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1998; 42 (4): 868-72
174. Nugier F, Colin JN, Aymard M, et al. Occurrence and characterization of acyclovir-resistant herpes simplex virus isolates: report on a two-year sensitivity screening survey. J Med Virol 1992; 36 (1): 1-12
175. Englund JA, Zimmerman ME, Swierkosz EM, et al. Herpes simplex virus resistant to acyclovir: a study in a tertiary care center. Ann Intern Med 1990; 112 (6): 416-22
176. Safrin S, Elbeik T, Phan L, et al. Correlation between response to acyclovir and foscarnet therapy and in vitro susceptibility result for isolates of herpes simplex virus from human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1994; 38 (6): 1246-50
177. Keller MJ, Tuyama A, Carlucci MJ, et al. Topical microbicides for the prevention of genital herpes infection. J Antimicrob Chemother 2005; 55 (4): 420-3
178. Koelle DM, Corey L. Recent progress in herpes simplex virus immunobiology and vaccine research. Clin Microbiol Rev 2003; 16 (1): 96-113