New insights into the pathology and molecular biology of human germ cell tumors

World Journal of Urology

Volumn 22, Issue 1, 2004, Pages 15-24

  Honecker, Friedemann ^a,b   Oosterhuis, J Wolter ^a   Mayer, Frank ^b   Hartmann, Jörg Thomas ^b   Bokemeyer, Carsten ^b   Looijenga, Leendert H J ^a  

^a JOSEPHINE NEFKENS INSTITUTE   (Netherlands)

^b UNIVERSITY OF TÜBINGEN   (Germany)

Author keywords

Developmental biology; Diagnosis; Germ cell tumors; Pathobiology; Treatment sensitivity and resistance

Indexed keywords

CANCER INVASION; GENETICS; GERM CELL TUMOR; HUMAN; MOLECULAR BIOLOGY; PATHOLOGY; PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT; REVIEW;

GERMINOMA; HUMANS; MOLECULAR BIOLOGY; NEOPLASM INVASIVENESS;

EID: 4344658203     PISSN: 07244983     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00345-004-0399-7     Document Type: Review

References (118)

1. Albanell J, Bosl GJ, Reuter VE, Engelhardt M, Franco S et al. (1999) Telomerase activity in germ cell cancers and mature teratomas. J Natl Cancer Inst 91:1321-1326
2. Andrews PW, Casper J, Damjanov I, Duggan-Keen M, Giwercman A et al. (1996) A comparative analysis of cell surface antigens expressed by cell lines derived from human germ cell tumors. Int J Cancer 66:806-816
3. Bartek J, Lukas J, Bartkova J (1999) Perspective: defects in cell cycle control and cancer. J Pathol 187:95-99
4. Bartkova J, Rajpert-De Meyts E, Skakkebaek NE, Bartek J (1999) D-type cyclins in adult human testis and testicular cancer: relation to cel type, proliferaton, differentiation, and malignancy. J Pathol 187:573-581
5. Bartkova J, Rajpert-De Meyts E, Skakkebaek NE, Lukas J, Bartek J (2003) Deregulation of the G1/S-phase control in human testicular germ cell tumours. APMIS 111: 252-266
6. Bartkova J, Thullberg M, Rajpert-De Meyts E, Skakkebaek NE, Bartek J (2000) Cell cycle regulators in testicular cancer: loss of p18INK4C marks progression from carcinoma in situ to invasive germ cell tumours. Int J Cancer 85:370-375
7. Bartkova J, Thullberg M, Rajpert-De Meyts E, Skakkebaek NE, Bartek J (2000) Lack of p19INK4d in human testicular germ-cell tumours contrasts with high expression during normal spermatogenesis. Oncogene 19:4146-4150.
8. Bourdon V, Naef F, Rao PH, Reuter V, Mok SC et al. (2002) Genomic and expression analysis of the 12p11-p12 amplicon using EST arrays identifies two novel amplified and overexpressed genes. Cancer Res 62:6218-6223
9. Bussey KJ, Lawce HJ, Himoe E, Shu XO, Heerema NA et al. (2001) SNRPN methylation patterns in germ cell tumors as a reflection of primordial germ cell development. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 32:342-352
10. Cairns J (2002) Somatic stem cells and the kinetics of mutagenesis and carcinogenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 99:10567-10570
11. De Gouveia Brazao CA, Pierik FH, Oosterhuis JW, Dohle GR, Looijenga LHJ, Weber RFA (2004) Bilateral testicular microlithiasis predicts development of malignant testicular germ cell tumours in subfertile men. J Urol 171:158-160
12. De Graaff WE, Oosterhuis JW, De Jong B, Dam A, Van Putten WLJ et al. (1992) Ploidy of testicular carcinoma in situ. Lab Invest 66:166-168
13. Dekker I, Rozeboom T, Delemarre J, Dam A, Oosterhuis JW (1992) Placental-like alkaline phosphatase and DNA flow cytometry in spermatocytic seminoma. Cancer 69:993-996
14. Dieckmann KP, Classen J, Loy V (2003) Diagnosis and management of testicular intraepithelial neoplasia (carcinoma in situ) - surgical aspects. APMIS 111:64-69
15. Dieckmann KP, Loy V (1996) Prevalence of contralateral testicular intraepithelial neoplasia in patients with testicular germ cell neoplasms. J Clin Oncol 14:3126-3132
16. Donovan PJ, Gearhart J (2001) The end of the beginning for pluripotent stem cells. Nature 414:92-97
17. Draper JS, Smith K, Gokhale P, Moore HD, Maltby E et al. (2004) Recurrent gain of chromosomes 17q and 12 in cultured human embryonic stem cells. Nat Biotechnol 22:53-54
18. Eble JN (1994) Spermatocytic seminoma. Hum Pathol 25:1035-1042
19. Fan S, Chang JK, Smith ML, Duba D, Fornace AJJr, O'Connor PM (1997) Cells lacking CIP1/WAF1 genes exhibit preferential sensitivity to cisplatin and nitrogen mustard. Oncogene 14:2127-2136
20. Gidekel S, Pizov G, Bergman Y, Pikarsky E (2003) Oct-3/4 is a dose-dependent oncogenic fate determinant. Cancer Cell 4:361-370
21. Gobel U, Schneider DT, Calaminus G, Haas RJ, Schmidt P, Harms D (2000) Germ-cell tumors in childhood and adolescence. GPOH MAKEI and the MAHO study groups. Ann Oncol 11:263-271
22. Gondos B, Hobel CJ (1971) Ultrastructure of germ cell development in the human fetal testis. Z Zellforsch Mikrosk Anat 119:1-20
23. Heidenblad M, Jonson T, Mahlamaki EH, Gorunova L, Karhu R et al. (2002) Detailed genomic mapping and expression analyses of 12p amplifications in pancreatic carcinomas reveal a 3.5-Mb target region for amplification. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 34:211-223
24. Henegariu O, Heerema NA, Thurston V, Jung SH, Pera M, Vance GH (2004) Characterization of gains, losses, and regional amplification in testicular germ cell tumor cell lines by comparative genomic hybridization. Cancer Genet Cytogenet 148:14-20
25. Honecker F, Mayer F, Stoop H, Oosterhuis JW, Koch S et al. (2003) Xeroderma pigmentosum group A protein and chemotherapy-resistance in human germ cell tumors. Lab Invest 83:1489-1495
26. Honorio S, Agathanggelou A, Wernert N, Rothe M, Maher ER, Latif F (2003) Frequent epigenetic inactivation of the RASSF1A tumour suppressor gene in testicular tumours and distinct methylation profiles of seminoma and nonseminoma testicular germ cell tumours. Oncogene 22:461-466
27. Hopkins KM, Wang X, Berlin A, Hang H, Thaker HM, Lieberman HB (2003) Expression of mammalian paralogues of HRAD9 and Mrad9 checkpoint control genes in normal and cancerous testicular tissue. Cancer Res 63:5291-5298
28. Houldsworth J, Reuter V, Bosl GJ, Chaganti RSK (1997) Aberrant expression of cyclin D2 is an early event in human male germ cell tumorigenesis. Cell Growth Develop 8:293-299
29. Jørgensen N, Giwercman A, Müller J, Skakkebaek NE (1993) Immunohistochemical markers of carcinoma in situ of the testis also expressed in normal infantile germ cells. Histopathology 22:373-378
30. Kawakami T, Okamoto K, Ogawa O, Okada Y (2004) XIST unmethylated DNA fragments in male-derived plasma as a tumour marker for testicular cancer. Lancet 363:40-42
31. Kemmer K, Corless CL, Fletcher JA, McGreevey L, Haley A et al. (2004) KIT mutations are common in testicular seminomas. Am J Pathol 164:305-313
32. Kildal W, Kraggerud SM, Abeler VM, Heim S, Trope CG et al. (2003) Genome profiles of bilateral dysgerminomas, a unilateral gonadoblastoma, and a metastasis from a 46, XY phenotypic female. Hum Pathol 34:946-949
33. Koberle B, Masters JR, Hartley JA, Wood RD (1999) Defective repair of cisplatin-induced DNA damage caused by reduced XPA protein in testicular germ cell tumours. Curr Biol 9:273-276
34. Kollmannsberger C, Mayer F, Pressler H, Koch S, Kanz L et al. (2002) Absence of c-KIT and members of the epidermal growth factor family in refractory germ cell cancer. Cancer 95:301-308
35. Koul S, Houldsworth J, Mansukhani MM, Donadio A, McKiernan JM et al. (2002) Characteristic promoter hypermethylation signatures in male germ cell tumors. Molec Cancer 1:8
36. Kraggerud SM, Skotheim RI, Szymanska J, Eknaes M, Fossa SD et al. (2002) Genome profiles of familial/bilateral and sporadic testicular germ cell tumors. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 34:168-174
37. Kraggerud SM, Szymanska J, Abeler VM, Kaern J, Eknaes M et al. (2000) DNA copy number changes in malignant ovarian germ cell tumors. Cancer Res 60:3025-3030
38. Lajos G, Gomez F, Mihaly B, Istvan B (2003) The incidence, prognosis, clinical and histological characteristics, treatment and outcome of patients with bilateral germ cell testicular cancer in Hungary. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 129:309-315
39. Lee AH, Mead GM, Theaker JM (1999) The value of central histopathological review of testicular tumours before treatment. BJU Int 84:75-78
40. Liao C, Li SQ, Wang X, Muhlrad S, Bjartell A, Wolgemuth DJ (2004) Elevated levels and distinct patterns of expression of A-type cyclins and their associated cyclin-dependent kinases in male germ cell tumors. Int J Cancer 108:654-664
41. Looijenga LHJ, Oosterhuis JW, Ramaekers FC, De Jong B, Dam A et al. (1991) Dual parameter flow cytometry for deoxyribonucleic acid and intermediate filament proteins of residual mature teratoma. All tumor cells are aneuploid. Lab Invest 64:113-117
42. Looijenga LHJ, De Leeuw PJC, Van Oorschot M, Van Gurp RJHLM, Stoop H et al. (2003) Stem cell factor receptor (c-KIT) codon 816 mutations predict development of bilateral testicular germ cell tumors. Cancer Res 63:7674-7678
43. Looijenga LHJ, Gillis AJM, Van Gurp RJHLM, Verkerk AJMH, Oosterhuis JW (1997) X inactivation in human testicular tumors. XIST expression and androgen receptor methylation status. Am J Pathol 151:581-590
44. Looijenga LHJ, Olie RA, Van der Gaag I, Van Sluijs FJ, Matoska J et al. (1994) Seminomas of the canine testis; counterpart of spermatocytic seminoma of men? Lab Invest 71:490-496
45. Looijenga LHJ, Oosterhuis JW (2002) Pathobiology of testicular germ cell tumors: views and news. Analyt Quant Cytol Histol 24:263-279
46. Looijenga LHJ, Rosenberg C, Van Gurp RJHLM, Geelen E, Van Echten-Arends J et al. (2000) Comparative genomic hybridization of microdissected samples from different stages in the development of a seminoma and nonseminoma. J Pathol 19:187-192
47. Looijenga LHJ, Stoop H, De Leeuw PJC, De Gouveia Brazao CA, Gillis AJM et al. (2003) POU5F1 (OCT3/4) identifies cells with pluripotent potential in human germ cell tumors. Cancer Res 63:2244-2250
48. Looijenga LHJ, Zafarana G, Grygalewicz B, Summersgill BM, Debiec-Rychter M et al. (2003) Role of gain of 12p in germ cell tumour development. APMIS 111:161-173
49. Madani A, Kemmer K, Sweeney C, Corless C, Ulbright T et al. (2003) Expression of KIT and epidermal growth factor receptor in chemotherapy refractory non-seminomatous germ-cell tumors. Ann Oncol 14:873-880
50. Masters JR, Koberle B (2003) Curing metastatic cancer: lessons from testicular germ-cell tumours. Nat Rev Cancer 3:517-525
51. Mayer F, Gillis AJM, Dinjens W, Oosterhuis JW, Bokemeyer C, Looijenga LHJ (2002) Microsatellite instability of germ cell tumors is associated with resistance to systemic treatement. Cancer Res 62:2758-2760
52. Mayer F, Honecker F, Looijenga LHJ, Bokemeyer C (2003) Towards understanding the biological basis of the response to cisplatin-based chemotherapy in germ cell tumors. Ann Oncol 9:825-832
53. Mayer F, Stoop H, Scheffer GL, Scheper R, Oosterhuis JW et al. (2003) Molecular determinants of treatment response in human germ cell tumors. Clin Cancer Res 9:767-773
54. Mayer F, Stoop H, Sen S, Bokemeyer C, Oosterhuis JW, Looijenga LHJ (2003) Aneuploidy of human testicular germ cell tumors is associated with amplification of centrosomes. Oncogene 22:3859-3866
55. Møller H (1989) Decreased testicular cancer risk in men born in wartime. J Natl Cancer Inst 81:1668-1669
56. Mostert MC, Rosenberg C, Stoop H, Schuyer M, Timmer A et al. (2000) Comparative genomic and in situ hybridization of germ cell tumors of the infantile testis. Lab Invest 80:1055-1064
57. Mostert MC, Verkerk AJMH, Van de Pol M, Heighway J, Marynen P et al. (1998) Identification of the crucial region of 12p overrepresentation in testicular germ cell tumors of adolescents and adults. Oncogene 16:2617-2627
58. Mostofi FK, Sesterhenn IA (1985) Pathology of germ cell tumors of testes. Prog Clin Biol Res 203:1-34
59. Mostofi FK, Sesterhenn IA, Davis CJJ (1987) Immunopathology of germ cell tumors of the testis. Semin Diagn Pathol 4:320-341
60. Mueller T, Voigt W, Simon H, Fruehauf A, Bulankin A et al. (2003) Failure of activation of caspase-9 induces a higher threshold for apoptosis and cisplatin resistance in testicular cancer. Cancer Res 63:513-521
61. Niwa H, Miyazaki J, Smith AG (2000) Quantitative expression of Oct-3/4 defines differentiation, dedifferentiation or self-renewal of ES cells. Nat Genet 24:372-376
62. Okada K, Katagiri T, Tsunoda T, Mizutani Y, Suzuki Y et al. (2003) Analysis of gene-expression profiles in testicular seminomas using a genome-wide cDNA microarray. Int J Oncol 23:1615-1635
63. Olie RA, Looijenga LHJ, Boerrigter L, Top B, Rodenhuis S et al. (1995) N- and KRAS mutations in human testicular germ cell tumors: incidence and possible biological implications. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 12:110-116
64. Oosterhuis JW, Castedo SMMJ, De Jong B, Cornelisse CJ, Dam A et al. (1989) Ploidy of primary germ cell tumors of the testis. Pathogenetic and clinical relevance. Lab Invest 60:14-20
65. Oosterhuis JW, Kersemaekers AM, Jacobsen GK, Timmer A, Steyerberg EW et al. (2003) Morphology of testicular parenchyma adjacent to germ cell tumours; an interim report. APMIS 111:32-42
66. Oosterhuis JW, Looijenga LHJ (1993) The biology of human germ cell tumours: retrospective speculations and new prospectives. Eur Urol 23:245-250
67. Oosterhuis JW, Looijenga LHJ, Geurts van Kessel A, De Jong B (1993) A cytogenetic classification of germ cell tumors, and its biological relevance. Eur Urol 23:6-8
68. Oosterhuis JW, Looijenga LHJ, Van Echten-Arends J, De Jong B (1997) Chromosomal constitution and developmental potential of human germ cell tumors and teratomas. Cancer Genet Cytogenet 95:96-102
69. Ottesen AM, Kirchhoff M, Rajpert De-Meyts E, Maahr J, Gerdes T et al. (1997) Detection of chromosomal aberrations in seminomatous germ cell tumours using comparative genomic hybridization. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 20:412-418
70. Ottesen AM, Skakkebaek NE, Lundsteen C, Leffers H, Larsen J, Rajpert-De Meyts E (2003) High-resolution comparative genomic hybridization detects extra chromosome arm 12p material in most cases of carcinoma in situ adjacent to overt germ cell tumors, but not before the invasive tumor development. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 38:117-125
71. Perlman EJ, Hu J, Ho D, Cushing B, Lauer S, Castleberry RP (2000) Genetic analysis of childhood endodermal sinus tumors by comparative genomic hybridization. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 22:100-105
72. Przygodzki RM, Hubbs AE, Zhao FQ, O'Leary TJ (2002) Primary mediastinal seminomas: evidence of single and multiple KIT mutations. Lab Invest 82:1369-1375
73. Rajpert-De Meyts E, Bartkova J, Samson M, Hoei-Hansen CE, Frydelund-Larsen L et al. (2003) The emerging phenotype of the testicular carcinoma in situ germ cell. APMIS 111:267-79
74. Rajpert-De Meyts E, Jacobsen GK, Bartkova J, Aubry F, Samson M et al. (2003) The immunohistochemical expression pattern of Chk2, p53, p19INK4d, MAGE-A4 and other selected antigens provides new evidence for the premeiotic origin of spermatocytic seminoma. Histopathology 42:217-226
75. Rajpert-De Meyts E, Jacobsen GK, Bartkova J, Aubry F, Samson M et al. (2003) The immunohistochemical expression pattern of Chk2, p53, p19INK4d, MAGE-A4 and other selected antigens provides new evidence for the premeiotic origin of spermatocytic seminoma. Histopathology 42:217-226
76. Rajpert-De Meyts E, Skakkebaek NE (1994) Expression of the c-kit protein product in carcinoma-in-situ and invasive testicular germ cell tumours. Int J Androl 17:85-92
77. Rao PH, Houldsworth J, Palanisamy N, Murty VVVS, Reuter VE et al. (1998) Chromosomal amplification is associated with cisplatinum resistance of human male germ cell tumors. Cancer Res 58:4260-4263
78. Rapley EA, Crockford GP, Easton DF, Stratton MR, Bishop DT (2003) Localisation of susceptibility genes for familial testicular germ cell tumour. APMIS 111:128-35
79. Rapley EA, Crockford GP, Teare D, Biggs P, Seal S et al. (2000) Localization to Xq27 of a susceptibility gene for testicular germ-cell tumours. Nat Genet 24:197-200
80. Riopel MA, Spellerberg A, Griffin CA, Perlman EJ (1998) Genetic analysis of ovarian germ cell tumors by comparative genomic hybridization. Cancer Res 58:3105-3110
81. Rodriguez E, Houldsworth J, Reuter VE, Meltzer P, Zhang J et al. (1993) Molecular cytogenetic analysis of i(12p)-negative human male germ cell tumors. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 8:230-236
82. Rodriguez S, Jafer O, Goker H, Summersgill BM, Zafarana G et al. (2003) Expression profile of genes from 12p in testicular germ cell tumors of adolescents and adults associated with i(12p) and amplification at 12p11.2-p12.1. Oncogene 22:1880-1891
83. Roelofs H, Mostert MC, Pompe K, Zafarana G, Van Oorschot M et al. (2000) Restricted 12p-amplification and RAS mutation in human germ cell tumors of the adult testis. Am J Pathol 157:1155-1166
84. Rosenberg C, Bakker Schut T, Mostert MC, Tanke HJ, Raap AK et al. (1999) Chromosomal gains and losses in testicular germ cell tumors of adolescents and adults investigated by a modified CGH approach. Lab Invest 79:1447-1451
85. Rosenberg C, Mostert MC, Bakker Schut T, Van de Pol M, Van Echten-Arends J et al. (1998) Chromosomal constitution of human spermatocytic seminomas: comparative genomic hybridization suppored by conventional and interphase cytogenetics. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 23:286-291
86. Rosenberg C, Van Gurp RJHLM, Geelen E, Oosterhuis JW, Looijenga LHJ (2000) Overrepresentation of the short arm of chromosome 12 is related to invasive growth of human testicular seminomas and nonseminomas. Oncogene 19:5858-5862
87. Schenk PW, Stoop H, Mayer F, Bokemeyer C, Stoter G et al. (2004) Resistance to platinum-containing chemotherpay in testicular germ cell tumours is associated with downregulation of the protein kinase SRPK1. Neoplasia (in press)
88. Schneider DT, Schuster AE, Fritsch MK, Hu J, Olson T et al. (2001) Multipoint imprinting analysis indicates a common precursor cell for gonadal and nongonadal pediatric germ cell tumors. Cancer Res 61:7268-7276
89. Scully RE (1970) Gonadoblastoma/A review of 74 cases. Cancer 25:1340-1356
90. Skakkebaek NE (1972) Possible carcinoma-in-situ of the testis. Lancet:516-517
91. Skakkebaek NE, Holm M, Hoei-Hansen C, Jørgensen N, Rajpert-De Meyts E (2003) Association between testicular dysgenesis syndrome (TDS) and testicular neoplasia: evidence from 20 adult patients with signs of maldevelopment of the testis. APMIS 111:1-11
92. Skakkebaek NE, Raipert-de Meyts E, Jørgensen N, Carlsen E, Petersen PM et al. (1998) Germ cell cancer and disorders of spermatogenesis: an environmental connection? APMIS 106:3-12
93. Skotheim RI, Monni O, Mousses S, Fossa SD, Kallioniemi OP et al. (2002) New insights into testicular germ cell tumorigenesis from gene expression profiling. Cancer Res 62:2359-2364
94. Smiraglia DJ, Szymanska J, Kraggerud SM, Lothe RA, Peltomaki P, Plass C (2002) Distinct epigenetic phenotypes in seminomatous and nonseminomatous testicular germ cell tumors. Oncogene 21:3909-3916
95. Smith-Sorensen B, Lind GE, Skotheim RI, Fossa SD, Fodstad O et al. (2002) Frequent promoter hypermethylation of the O6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase (MGMT) gene in testicular cancer. Oncogene 21:8878-8884
96. Sperger JM, Chen X, Draper JS, Antosiewicz JE, Chon CH et al. (2003) Gene expression patterns in human embryonic stem cells and human pluripotent germ cell tumors. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 100:13350-13355
97. Spierings DC, De Vries EG, Vellenga E, De Jong S (2003) The attractive Achilles heel of germ cell tumours: an inherent sensitivity to apoptosis-inducing stimuli. J Pathol 200:137-148
98. Stoop H, Van Gurp RHJLM, De Krijger R, Geurts van Kessel A, Koberle B et al. (2001) Reactivity of germ cell maturation stage-specific markers in spermatocytic seminoma: diagnostic and etiological implications. Lab Invest 81:919-928
99. Strohmeyer T, Reissmann P, Cordon-Cardo C, Hartmann M, Ackermann R, Slamon D (1991) Correlation between retinoblastoma gene expression and differentiation in human testicular tumors. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 88:6662-6666
100. Subramaniam K, Seydoux G (2003) Dedifferentiation of primary spermatocytes into germ cell tumors in C. elegans lacking the pumilio-like protein PUF-8. Curr Biol 13:134-139
101. Suijkerbuijk RF, Sinke RJ, Meloni AM, Parrington JM, Van Echten J et al. (1993) Overrepresentation of chromosome 12p sequences and karyotypic evolution in i(12p)-negative testicular germ-cell tumors revealed by fluorescence in situ hybridization. Cancer Genet Cytogenet 70:85-93
102. Suijkerbuijk RF, Sinke RJ, Olde Weghuis DEM, Roque L, Forus A et al. (1994) Amplification of chromosome subregion 12p11.2-p12.1 in a metastatis of an i(12p)-negative seminoma: relationship to tumor progression? Cancer Genet Cytogenet 78:145-152
103. Summersgill B, Goker H, Wber-Hall S, Huddart R, Horwich A, Shipley J (1998) Molecular cytogenetic analysis of adult testicular germ cell tumours and identification of regions of consensus copy number change. Br J Cancer 77:305-313
104. Summersgill B, Osin P, Lu YJ, Huddart R, Shipley J (2001) Chromosomal imbalances associated with carcinoma in situ and associated testicular germ cell tumours of adolescents and adults. Br J Cancer 85:213-220
105. Summersgill BM, Jafer O, Wang R, Goker H, Niculescu-Duvaz I et al. (2001) Definition of chromosome aberrations in testicular germ cell tumor cell lines by 24-color karyotyping and complementary molecular cytogenetic analyses. Cancer Genet Cytogenet 128:120-129
106. Szabo PE, Mann JR (1995) Biallelic expression of imprinted genes in the mouse germ line: Implications for erasure, establishment, and mechanisms of genomic imprinting. Genes Develop 9:1857-1868
107. Takayama H, Takakuwa T, Tsujimoto Y, Tani Y, Nonomura N et al. (2002) Frequent Fas gene mutations in testicular germ cell tumors. Am J Pathol 161:635-641
108. Tian Q, Frierson HF Jr, Krystal GW, Moskaluk CA (1999) Activating c-kit gene mutations in human germ cell tumors. Am J Pathol 154:1643-1647
109. Van Berlo RJ, Oosterhuis JW, Schrijnemakers E, Schools CJ, De Jong B, Damjanov I (1990) Yolk-sac carcinoma develops spontaneously as a late occurrence in slow-growing teratoid tumors produced from transplanted 7-day mouse embryos. Int J Cancer 45:153-155
110. Van Echten-Arends J, Oosterhuis JW, Looijenga LHJ, Wiersma J, Te Meerman G et al. (1995) No recurrent structural abnormalities in germ cell tumors of the adult testis apart from i(12p). Genes Chromosomes Cancer 14:133-144
111. Van Gurp RJLM, Oosterhuis JW, Kalscheuer V, Mariman ECM, Looijenga LHJ (1994) Human testicular germ cell tumors show biallelic expression of the H19 and IGF2 gene. J Natl Cancer Inst 86:1070-1075
112. Veltman I, Schepens MT, Looijenga LHJ, Strong LC, Geurts van Kessel A (2003) Germ cell tumours in neonates and infants: a distinct subgroup. APMIS 111:152-160
113. Walt H, Oosterhuis JW, Stevens LC (1993) Experimental testicular germ cell tumorigenesis in mouse strains with and without spontaneous tumours differs from development of germ cell tumours of the adult human testis. Int J Androl 16:267-271
114. Wylie C (1999) Germ cells. Cell 96:165-174
115. Zafarana G, Gillis AJM, Van Gurp RJHLM, Olsson PG, Elstrodt F et al. (2002) Coamplification of DAD-R, SOX5, and EKI1 in human testicular seminomas, with specific overexpression of DAD-R, correlates with reduced levels of apoptosis and earlier clinical manifestation. Cancer Res 62:1822-1831
116. Zafarana G, Grygalewicz B, Gillis AJM, Vissers LELM, Van de Vliet W et al. (2003) 12p-amplicon structure analysis in testicular germ cell tumors of adolescents and adults by array-CGH. Oncogene 22:7695-7701
117. Zamble DB, Mikata Y, Eng CH, Sandman KE, Lippard SJ (2002) Testis-specific HMG-domain protein alters the responses of cells to cisplatin. J Inorg Biochem 91:451-462
118. Zeeman AM, Stoop H, Boter M, Gillis AJM, Castrillon DH et al. (2002) VASA is a specific marker for both normal and malignant human germ cells. Lab Invest 82:159-166