Bacterial mycophagy: Definition and diagnosis of a unique bacterial-fungal interaction

New Phytologist

Volumn 177, Issue 4, 2008, Pages 859-876

  Leveau, Johan H J ^a   Preston, Gail M ^b  

^a NETHERLANDS INSTITUTE OF ECOLOGY NIOO KNAW   (Netherlands)

^b UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Antifungal; Biocontrol; Cyanolichen; Endosymbiont; Fungivore; Mycoparasitism; Mycorrhizal helper bacteria

Indexed keywords

BACTERIUM; BIOLOGICAL CONTROL; BIOMASS; ENDOSYMBIONT; FUNGUS; MYCOPARASITE; MYCOPHAGY; PHENOTYPE;

BACTERIUM; FUNGUS; METABOLISM; REVIEW;

BACTERIA; FUNGI;

BACTERIA (MICROORGANISMS); FUNGI;

EID: 38949131843     PISSN: 0028646X     EISSN: 14698137     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.02325.x     Document Type: Review

References (212)

1. Ahn, SJ, Yang, CH, Cooksey, DA. 2007. Pseudomonas putida 06909 genes expressed during colonization on mycelial surfaces and phenotypic characterization of mutants. Journal of Applied Microbiology 103 : 120 132.
2. Ajit N, Verma R, Shanmugam V. 2006. Extracellular chitinases of fluorescent pseudomonads antifungal to Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. Dianthi causing carnation wilt. Current Microbiology 52 : 310 316.
3. Alem MAS, Oteef MDY, Flowers TH, Douglas LJ. 2006. Production of tyrosol by Candida albicans biofilms and its role in quorum sensing and biofilm development. Eukaryotic Cell 5 : 1770 1779.
4. Alexopoulos CJ, Mims CW, Blackwell M. 1996. Introductory Mycology, 4th edn. New York, NY, USA : Wiley.
5. Angot A, Vergunst A, Genin S, Peeters N. 2007. Exploitation of eukaryotic ubiquitin signaling pathways by effectors translocated by bacterial type III and type IV secretion systems. PLoS Pathogens 3 : e3.
6. Arora DK, Filonow AB, Lockwood JL. 1983. Bacterial chemotaxis to fungal propagules in vitro and in soil. Canadian Journal of Microbiology 29 : 1104 1109.
7. Aspray TJ, Frey-Klett P, Jones JE, Whipps JM, Garbaye J, Bending GD. 2006. Mycorrhization helper bacteria: a case of specificity for altering ectomycorrhiza architecture but not ectomycorrhiza formation. Mycorrhiza 16 : 533 541.
8. Aspray TJ, Hansen SK, Burns RG. 2005. A soil-based microbial biofilm exposed to 2,4-D: bacterial community development and establishment of conjugative plasmid pJP4. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 54 : 317 327.
9. Backert S, Meyer TF. 2006. Type IV secretion systems and their effectors in bacterial pathogenesis. Current Opinion in Microbiology 9 : 207 217.
10. Bae YS, Knudsen GR. 2001. Influence of a fungus-feeding nematode on growth and biocontrol efficacy of Trichoderma harzianum. Phytopathology 91 : 301 306.
11. Barnett HL. 1963. Nature of mycoparasitism by fungi. Annual Review of Microbiology 17 : 1 14.
12. Barnett HL, Binder FL. 1973. Fungal host-parasite relationship. Annual Review of Phytopathology 11 : 273 292.
13. Beale E, Li G, Tan M-W, Rumbaugh KP. 2006. Caenorhabditis elegans senses bacterial autoinducers. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 72 : 5135 5137.
14. Becker DM, Bagley ST, Podila GK. 1999. Effects of mycorrhizal-associated streptomycetes on growth of Laccaria bicolor, Cenococcum geophilum, and Armillaria species and on gene expression in Laccaria bicolor. Mycologia 91 : 33 40.
15. Benitez T, Rincon AM, Limon MC, Codon AC. 2004. Biocontrol mechanisms of Trichoderma strains. International Microbiology 7 : 249 260.
16. Bertault G, Roussett F, Fernandez D, Berthomieu A, Hochberg ME, Callot G, Raymond M. 2001. Population genetics and dynamics of the black truffle in a man-made truffle field. Heredity 86 : 451 458.
17. Bertaux J, Schmid M, Prevost-Boure NC, Churin JL, Hartmann A, Garbaye J, Frey-Mett P. 2003. In situ identification of intracellular bacteria related to Paenibacillus spp. in the mycelium of the ectomycorrhizal fungus Laccaria bicolor S238N. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 69 : 4243 4248.
18. Betts HJ, Chaudhuri RR, Pallen MJ. 2004. An analysis of type-III secretion gene clusters in Chromobacterium violaceum. Trends in Microbiology 12 : 476 482.
19. Bianciotto V, Bonfante P. 2002. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi: a specialised niche for rhizospheric and endocellular bacteria. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek International Journal of General and Molecular Microbiology 81 : 365 371.
20. Bianciotto V, Genre A, Jargeat P, Lumini E, Becard G, Bonfante P. 2004. Vertical transmission of endobacteria in the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Gigaspora margarita through generation of vegetative spores. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 70 : 3600 3608.
21. Bianciotto V, Lumini E, Bonfante P, Vandamme P. 2003. 'Candidatus Glomeribacter gigasporarum' gen. nov., sp. nov., an endosymbiont of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. International Journal of Systematics and Evolutionary Microbiology 53 : 121 124.
22. Bianco C, Imperlini E, Calogero R, Senatore B, Pucci P, Defez R. 2006. Indole-3-acetic acid regulates the central metabolic pathways in Escherichia coli. Microbiology 152 : 2421 2431.
23. Blaise F, Remy E, Meyer M, Zhou L, Narcy J-P, Roux J, Balesdent M-H, Rouxel T. 2007. A critical assessment of Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation as a tool for pathogenicity gene discovery in the phytopathogenic fungus Leptosphaeria maculans. Fungal Genetics and Biology 44 : 123 138.
24. Blankenship JR, Mitchell AP. 2006. How to build a biofilm: a fungal perspective. Current Opinion in Microbiology 9 : 588 594.
25. de Boer W, Folman LB, Summerbell RC, Boddy L. 2005. Living in a fungal world: impact of fungi on soil bacterial niche development. FEMS Microbiology Reviews 29 : 795 811.
26. de Boer W, Gunnewiek P, Kowalchuk GA, van Veen JA. 2001. Growth of chitinolytic dune soil β-subclass proteobacteria in response to invading fungal hyphae. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 67 : 3358 3362.
27. de Boer W, Leveau JHJ, Kowalchuk GA, Gunnewiek P, Abeln ECA, Figge MJ, Sjollema K, Janse JD, van Veen JA. 2004. Collimonas fungivorans gen. nov., sp nov., a chitinolytic soil bacterium with the ability to grow on living fungal hyphae. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 54 : 857 864.
28. Bolwerk A, Lagopodi AL, Wijfjes AH, Lamers GE, Chin-A-Woeng TF, Lugtenberg B, Bloemberg GV. 2003. Interactions in the tomato rhizosphere of two Pseudomonas biocontrol strains with the phytopathogenic fungus Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. radicis-lycopersici. Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions 16 : 983 993.
29. Boschker HTS, Middelburg JJ. 2002. Stable isotopes and biomarkers in microbial ecology. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 40 : 85 95.
30. Braun PG, Hildebrand PD, Ells TC, Kobayashi DY. 2001. Evidence and characterisation of a gene cluster required for the production of viscosin, a lipopeptide biosurfactant, by a strain of Pseudomonas fluorescens. Canadian Journal of Microbiology 47 : 294 301.
31. Breakspear A, Momany M. 2007. The first fifty microarray studies in filamentous fungi. Microbiology 153 : 7 15.
32. Brunner K, Peterbauer CK, Mach RL, Lorito M, Zeilinger S, Kubicek CP. 2003. The nag1 N-acetylglucosaminidase of Trichoderma atroviride is essential for chitinase induction by chitin and of major relevance to biocontrol. Current Genetics 43 : 289 295.
33. Budi SW, van Tuinen D, Arnould C, Dumas-Gaudot E, Gianinazzi-Pearson V, Gianinazzi S. 2000. Hydrolytic enzyme activity of Paenibacillus sps strain b2 and effects of the antagonistic bacterium on cell integrity of two soil-borne pathogenic fungi. Applied Soil Ecology 15 : 191 199.
34. Bundock P, Dulk-Ras AD, Beijersbergen A, Hooykaas PJJ. 1995. Trans-kingdom T-DNA transfer from Agrobacterium tumefaciens to Saccharomyces cerevisiae. EMBO Journal 14 : 3206 3214.
35. Buttner S, Eisenberg T, Herker E, Carmona-Gutierrez D, Kroemer G, Madeo F. 2006. Why yeast cells can undergo apoptosis: death in times of peace, love, and war. Journal of Cell Biology 175 : 521 525.
36. Cambronne ED, Roy CR. 2006. Recognition and delivery of effector proteins into eukaryotic cells by bacterial secretion systems. Traffic 7 : 929 939.
37. Campodonico EM, Chesnel L, Roy CR. 2005. A yeast genetic system for the identification and characterization of substrate proteins transferred into host cells by the Legionella pneumophila Dot/Icm system. Molecular Microbiology 56 : 918 933.
38. Chamilos G, Lewis RE, Kontoyiannis DP. 2007. Multidrug-resistant endosymbiotic bacteria account for the emergence of zygomycosis: a hypothesis. Fungal Genetics and Biology 44 : 88 92.
39. Chen W-M, de Faria SM, Straliotto R, Pitard RM, Simoes-Araujo JL, Chou J-H, Chou Y-J, Barrios E, Prescott AR, Elliott GN et al. 2005. Proof that Burkholderia strains form effective symbioses with legumes: a study of novel mimosa-nodulating strains from South America. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 71 : 7461 7471.
40. Chen W-M, Moulin L, Bontemps C, Vandamme P, Bena G, Boivin-Masson C. 2003. Legume symbiotic nitrogen fixation by β-proteobacteria is widespread in nature. Journal of Bacteriology 185 : 7266 7272.
41. Cherif M, Sadfi N, Benhamou N, Boudabbous A, Boubaker A, Hajlaoui MR, Tirilly Y. 2002. Ultrastructure and cytochemistry of in vitro interactions of the antagonistic bacteria Bacillus cereus X16 and B. thuringiensis 55T with Fusarium roseum var. Sambucinum. Journal of Plant Pathology 84 : 83 93.
42. Chernin L, Ismailov Z, Haran S, Chet I. 1995. Chitinolytic Enterobacter agglomerans antagonistic to fungal plant pathogens. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 61 : 1720 1726.
43. Chowdhury PR, Heinemann JA. 2006. The general secrotory pathway of Burkholderia gladioli pv. agaricicola bg164r is necessary for cavity disease in white button mushrooms. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 72 : 3558 3565.
44. Christie PJ, Atmakur K, Krishnamoorthy V, Jakubowski S, Cascales E. 2005. Biogenesis, architecture, and function of bacterial type IV secretion systems. Annual Review of Microbiology 59 : 451 485.
45. Claridge AW, Cork SJ. 1994. Nutritional value of hypogeal fungal sporocarps for the long-nosed potoroo (Potorous tridactylus), a forest-dwelling mycophagous marsupial. Australian Journal of Zoology 42 : 701 710.
46. Coluccio A, Bogengruber E, Conrad MN, Dresser ME, Briza P, Neiman AM. 2004. Morphogenetic pathway of spore wall assembly in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Eukaryotic Cell 3 : 1464 1475.
47. Cugini C, Calfee MW, Farrow JM, Morales DK, Pesci EC, Hogan DA. 2007. Farnesol, a common sesquiterpene, inhibits PQS production in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Molecular Microbiology 65 : 896 906.
48. Cummings CA, Relman DA. 2000. Using DNA microarrays to study host-microbe interactions. Emerging Infectious Diseases 6 : 513 525.
49. Currah RS, Smreciu EA, Lehesvirta T, Niemi M, Larsen KW. 2000. Fungi in the winter diets of northern flying squirrels and red squirrels in the boreal mixed wood forest of Northeastern Alberta. Canadian Journal of Botany 78 : 1514 1520.
50. Delgado-Jarana J, Sousa S, Gonzalez F, Rey M, Llobell A. 2006. ThHog1 controls the hyperosmotic stress response in Trichoderma harzianum. Microbiology 152 : 1687 1700.
51. Deveau A, Palin B, Delaruelle C, Peter M, Kohler A, Pierrat JC, Sarniguet A, Garbaye J, Martin F, Frey-Klett P. 2007. The mycorrhiza helper Pseudomonas fluorescens BBc6R8 has a specific priming effect on the growth, morphology and gene expression of the ectomycorrhizal fungus Laccaria bicolor S238N. New Phytologist 175 : 743 755.
52. Dijksterhuis J, Sanders M, Gorris LGM, Smid EJ. 1999. Antibiosis plays a role in the context of direct interaction during antagonism of Paenibacillus polymyxa towards Fusarium oxysporum. Journal of Applied Microbiology 86 : 13 21.
53. Elliott GN, Chen W-M, Chou J-H, Wang H-C, Sheu S-Y, Perin L, Reis VM, Moulin L, Simon MF, Bontemps C et al. 2007. Burkholderia phymatum is a highly effective nitrogen-fixing symbiont of Mimosa spp. and fixes nitrogen ex planta. New Phytologist 173 : 168 180.
54. Ferguson MW, Maxwell JA, Vincent TS, da Silva J, Olson JC. 2001. Comparison of the exoS gene and protein expression in soil and clinical isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Infection and Immunity 69 : 2198 2210.
55. Fogliano V, Ballio A, Gallo M, Woo S, Scala F. 2002. Pseudomonas lipodepsipeptides and fungal cell wall-degrading enzymes act synergistically in biological control. Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions 15 : 323 333.
56. Frank JL, Barry S, Southworth D. 2006. Mammal mycophagy and dispersal of mycorrhizal inoculum in Oregon white oak woodlands. Northwest Science 80 : 264 273.
57. Frey-Klett P, Garbaye J. 2005. Mycorrhiza helper bacteria: a promising model for the genomic analysis of fungal-bacterial interactions. New Phytologist 168 : 4 8.
58. Frey-Klett P, Garbaye J, Tarkka M. 2007. The mycorrhiza helper bacteria revisited. New Phytologist 176 : 22 36.
59. Friedrich MW. 2006. Stable-isotope probing of DNA: insights into the function of uncultivated microorganisms from isotopically labelled metagenomes. Current Opinion in Biotechnology 17 : 59 66.
60. Fritsche K, Leveau JHJ, Gerards S, Ogawa S, de Boer W, van Veen JA. 2006. Collimonas fungivorans and bacterial mycophagy. IOBC/WPRS Bulletin 29 : 27 30.
61. Galan JE, Wolf-Watz H. 2006. Protein delivery into eukaryotic cells by type III secretion machines. Nature 444 : 567 573.
62. Garbaye J. 1994. Helper bacteria: a new dimension to the mycorrhizal symbiosis. New Phytologist 128 : 197 210.
63. Garcia-Rodriguez FM, Schrammeijer B, Hooykaas PJJ. 2006. The Agrobacterium VirE3 effector protein: a potential plant transcriptional activator. Nucleic Acids Research 34 : 6496 6504.
64. Godfrey SAC, Harrow SA, Marshall JW, Klena JD. 2001. Characterization by 16S rRNA sequence analysis of pseudomonads causing blotch disease of cultivated Agaricus bisporus. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 67 : 4316 4323.
65. Gonzalez JE, Keshavan ND. 2006. Messing with bacterial quorum sensing. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews 70 : 859 875.
66. Grant SR, Fisher EJ, Chang JH, Mole BM, Dangl JL. 2006. Subterfuge and manipulation: type III effector proteins of phytopathogenic bacteria. Annual Review of Microbiology 60 : 425 449.
67. Grewal SIS, Rainey PB. 1991. Phenotypic variation of Pseudomonas putida and P. tolaasii affects the chemotactic response to Agaricus bisporus mycelial exudate. Journal of General Microbiology 137 : 2761 2768.
68. Griffiths RP, Baham JE, Caldwell BA. 1994. Soil solution chemistry of ectomycorrhizal mats in forest soil. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 26 : 331 337.
69. de Groot MJA, Bundock P, Hooykaas PJJ, Beijersbergen A. 1998. Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation of filamentous fungi. Nature Biotechnology 16 : 839 842.
70. Guiney DG. 2005. The role of host cell death in Salmonella infections. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology 289 : 131 150.
71. Gurlebeck D, Thieme F, Bonas U. 2006. Type III effector proteins from the plant pathogen Xanthomonas and their role in the interaction with the host plant. Journal of Plant Physiology 163 : 233 255.
72. Haas D, Blumer C, Keel C. 2000. Biocontrol ability of fluorescent pseudomonads genetically dissected: importance of positive feedback regulation. Current Opinion in Biotechnology 11 : 290 297.
73. Haas D, Defago G. 2005. Biological control of soil-borne pathogens by fluorescent pseudomonads. Nature Reviews Microbiology 3 : 307 319.
74. Hagen S, Marx F, Ram AF, Meyer V. 2007. The antifungal protein Afp from Aspergillus giganteus inhibits chitin synthesis in sensitive fungi. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 73 : 2128 2134.
75. Hanson AM, Hall MB, Porter LM, Lintzenich B. 2006. Composition and nutritional characteristics of fungi consumed by Callimico goeldii in Pando, Bolivia. International Journal of Primatology 27 : 323 346.
76. Hanya G. 2004. Diet of a japanese macaque troop in the coniferous forest of Yakushima. International Journal of Primatology 25 : 55 71.
77. He P, Shan L, Sheen J. 2007. Elicitation and suppression of microbe-associated molecular pattern-triggered immunity in plant-microbe interactions. Cell Microbiology 9 : 1385 1396.
78. Hoch HC. 1978. Mycoparasitic relationships. 4. Stephanoma phaeospora parasitic on a species of Fusarium. Mycologia 70 : 370 379.
79. Hogan DA, Kolter R. 2002. Pseudomonas-Candida interactions: an ecological role for virulence factors. Science 296 : 2229 2232.
80. Hogan DA, Vik A, Kolter R. 2004. A Pseudomonas aeruginosa quorum-sensing molecule influences Candida albicans morphology. Molecular Microbiology 54 : 1212 1223.
81. Homma Y. 1984. Perforation and lysis of hyphae of Rhizoctonia solani and conidia of Cochliobolus miyabeanus by soil myxobacteria. Phytopathology 74 : 1234 1239.
82. Honegger R. 2001. The symbiotic phenotype of lichen-forming ascomycetes. In : Hock B, ed. The Mycota; IX Fungal Associations. Berlin, Germany : Springer Verlag, 165 188.
83. Höppener-Ogawa S, Leveau JHJ, Smant W, van Veen JA, de Boer W. 2007. Specific detection and real-time PCR quantification of potentially mycophagous bacteria belonging to the genus Collimonas in different soil ecosystems. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 73 : 4191 4197.
84. Hoster F, Schmitz JE, Daniel R. 2005. Enrichment of chitinolytic microorganisms: isolation and characterization of a chitinase exhibiting antifungal activity against phytopathogenic fungi from a novel Streptomyces strain. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 66 : 434 442.
85. Huang WE, Bailey MJ, Thompson IP, Whiteley AS, Spiers AJ. 2007. Single-cell Raman spectral profiles of Pseudomonas fluorescens SBW25 reflects in vitro and in planta metabolic history. Microbial Ecology 53 : 414 425.
86. Ikeda R, Saito F, Matsuo M, Kurokawa K, Sekimizu K, Yamaguchi M, Kawamoto S. 2007. The contribution of the mannan backbone of cryptococcal glucuronoxylomannan and a glycolytic enzyme of Staphylococcus aureus to contact mediated killing of Cryptococcus neoformans. Journal of Bacteriology 189 : 4815 4826.
87. Inbar J, Chet I. 1991. Evidence that chitinase produced by Aeromonas caviae is involved in the biological control of soil-borne plant-pathogens by this bacterium. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 23 : 973 978.
88. Inbar J, Menendez A, Chet I. 1996. Hyphal interaction between Trichoderma harzianum and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and its role in biological control. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 28 : 757 763.
89. Jacobs K, Holtzman K, Seifert KA. 2005. Morphology, phylogeny and biology of Gliocephalis hyalina, a biotrophic contact mycoparasite of Fusarium species. Mycologia 97 : 111 120.
90. Jamir Y, Guo M, Oh H-S, Petnicki-Ocwieja T, Chen S, Tang X, Dickman MB, Collmer A, Alfano J. 2004. Identification of Pseudomonas syringae type III effectors that can suppress programmed cell death in plants and yeast. Plant Journal 37 : 554 565.
91. Jeffries P. 1995. Biology and ecology of mycoparasitism. Canadian Journal of Botany 73 : S1284 S1290.
92. Jargeat P, Cosseau C, Ola'h B, Jauneau A, Bonfante P, Batut J, Becard G. 2004. Isolation, free-living capacities, and genome structure of 'Candidatus Glomeribacter gigasporarum,' the endocellular bacterium of the mycorrhizal fungus Gigaspora margarita. Journal of Bacteriology 186 : 6876 6884.
93. Jewell SN, Waldo RH, Cain CC, Falkinham JO. 2002. Rapid detection of lytic antimicrobial activity against yeast and filamentous fungi. Journal of Microbiological Methods 49 : 1 9.
94. Jourdan E, Lazzaroni S, Lopez Mendez B, Lo Cantore P, de Julio M, Amodeo P, Iacobellis N, Evidente A. 2003. A left-handed alpha-helix containing both l- and d-amino acids: the solution structure of the antimicrobial lipodepsipeptide tolaasin. Proteins: Structure, Function, and Genetics 52 : 534 543.
95. Kamilova F, Leveau JHJ, Lugtenberg BJJ. 2007. Collimonas fungivorans, an unpredicted in vitro but efficient in vivo biocontrol agent for the suppression of tomato foot and root rot. Environmental Microbiology 9 : 1597 1603.
96. Karamanoli K, Lindow SE. 2006. Disruption of n-acyl homoserine lactone-mediated cell signaling and iron acquisition in epiphytic bacteria by leaf surface compounds. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 72 : 7678 7686.
97. Kluge M. 2002. A fungus eats a cyanobacterium: the story of the Geosiphon pyriformis endocyanosis. Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 102B : 11 14.
98. Kluge M, Mollenhauer D, Wolf E, Schubler A 2002. The Nostoc-Geosiphon endocytobiosis. In : Rai AN, Bergman B, Rasmussen U, eds. Cyanobacteria in symbiosis. Dordrecht, the Netherlands : Kluwer Academic Publishers, 19 30.
99. Kneip C, Lockhart P, VoSz C, Maier U-G. 2007. Nitrogen fixation in eukaryotes-new models for symbiosis. BMC Evolutionary Biology 7 : 55.
100. Kobayashi DY, Reedy RM, Bick J, Oudemans PV. 2002. Characterization of a chitinase gene from Stenotrophomonas maltophilia strain 34S1 and its involvement in biological control. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 68 : 1047 1054.
101. Kristufek V, Fischer S, Buhrmann J, Zeltins A, Schrempf H. 1999. In situ monitoring of chitin degradation by Streptomyces lividans pCHIO12 within Enchytraeus crypticus (Oligochaeta) feeding on Aspergillus proliferans. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 28 : 41 48.
102. Laue H, Schenk A, Li H, Lambertsen L, Neu TR, Molin SUllrich MS. 2006. Contribution of alginate and levan production to biofilm formation by Pseudomonas syringae. Microbiology 152 : 2909 2918.
103. 2 pulse-labelling in an upland grassland. Applied Soil Ecology 33 : 152 175.
104. Lee H, Chang YC, Nardone G, Kwon-Chung KJ. 2007. Tup1 disruption in Cryptococcus neoformans uncovers a peptide-mediated density-dependent growth phenomenon that mimics quorum sensing. Molecular Microbiology 64 : 591 601.
105. Lee PJ, Koske RE. 1994. Gigaspora gigantea - parasitism of spores by fungi and actinomycetes. Mycological Research 98 : 458 466.
106. Lee Q, Widden P. 1996. Folsomia candida, a 'fungivorous' collembolan, feeds preferentially on nematodes rather than soil fungi. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 28 : 689 690.
107. Lee SW, Cooksey DA. 2000. Genes expressed in Pseudomonas putida during colonization of a plant-pathogenic fungus. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 66 : 2764 2772.
108. Leiter E, Szappanos H, Oberparleiter C, Kaiserer L, Csernoch L, Pusztahelyi T, Emri T, Pocsi I, Salvenmoser W, Marx F. 2005. Antifungal protein PAF severely affects the integrity of the plasma membrane of Aspergillus nidulans and induces an apoptosis-like phenotype. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 49 : 2445 2453.
109. Lesage G, Bussey H. 2006. Cell wall assembly in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews 70 : 317 343.
110. Leschen RAB. 2000. Beetles feeding on bugs (Coleoptera, Hemiptera): repeated shifts from mycophagous ancestors. Invertebrate Taxonomy 14 : 917 929.
111. Lesser CF, Miller SI. 2001. Expression of microbial virulence proteins in Saccharomyces cerevisiae models mammalian infection. EMBO Journal 20 : 1840 1849.
112. Leveau JHJ, Gerards S, Fritsche K, Zondag G, van Veen JA. 2006. Genomic flank-sequencing of plasposon insertion sites for rapid identification of functional genes. Journal of Microbiological Methods 66 : 276 285.
113. Leveau JHJ, Lindow SE. 2002. Bioreporters in microbial ecology. Current Opinion in Microbiology 5 : 259 265.
114. Leveau JHJ, Lindow SE. 2005. Utilization of the plant hormone indole-3-acetic acid for growth by Pseudomonas putida strain 1290. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 71 : 2365 2371.
115. Levy A, Chang BJ, Abbott LK, Kuo J, Harnett G, Inglis TJJ. 2003. Invasion of spores of the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Gigaspora decipiens by Burkholderia spp. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 69 : 6250 6256.
116. Lim HS, Kim YS, Kim SD. 1991. Pseudomonas stutzeri YPL-1 genetic transformation and antifungal mechanism against Fusarium solani, an agent of plant-root rot. Applied and Environment Microbiology 57 : 510 516.
117. Lim WC, Lockwood JL. 1988. Chemotaxis of some phytopathogenic bacteria to fungal propagules in vitro and in soil. Canadian Journal of Microbiology 34 : 196 199.
118. Linder MB, Szilvay GR, Nakari-Setala T, Penttila ME. 2005. Hydrophobins: the protein-amphiphiles of filamentous fungi. FEMS Microbiology Reviews 29 : 877 896.
119. Lindquist EE. 1998. Evolution of phytophagy in trombidiform mites. Experimental and Applied Acarology 22 : 81 100.
120. Liu P, Nester EW. 2006. Indoleacetic acid, a product of transferred DNA, inhibits vir gene expression and growth of Agrobacterium tumefaciens C58. Proeedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 103 : 4658 4662.
121. Lo Cantore P, Lazzaroni S, Coraiola M, Serra MD, Cafarchia C, Evidente A, Iacobellis N. 2006. Biological characterization of white line-inducing principle (WLIP) produced by Pseudomonas reactans NCPPB1311. Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions 19 : 1113 1120.
122. Lorito M, Farkas V, Rebuffat S, Bodo B, Kubicek CP. 1996. Cell wall synthesis is a major target of mycoparasitic antagonism by Trichoderma harzianum. Journal of Bacteriology 178 : 6382 6385.
123. Lorito M, Peterbauer C, Hayes CK, Harman GE. 1994. Synergistic interaction between fungal cell wall degrading enzymes and different antifungal compounds enhances inhibition of spore germination. Microbiology 140 : 623 629.
124. Lu YH, Abraham WR, Conrad R. 2007. Spatial variation of active microbiota in the rice rhizosphere revealed by in situ stable isotope probing of phospholipid fatty acids. Environmental Microbiology 9 : 474 481.
125. Lueders T, Kindler R, Miltner A, Friedrich MW, Kaestner M. 2006. Identification of bacterial micropredators distinctively active in a soil microbial food web. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 72 : 5342 5348.
126. Lumini E, Bianciotto V, Jargeat P, Novero M, Salvioli A, Faccio A, Bécard G, Bonfante P. 2007. Presymbiotic growth and sporal morphology are affected in the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Gigaspora margarita cured of its endobacteria Cellular Microbiology 9 : 1716.
127. Mannisto MK, Haggblom MM. 2006. Characterization of psychrotolerant heterotrophic bacteria from Finnish lapland. Systematic and Applied Microbiology 29 : 229 243.
128. Marek SM, Wu J, Glass NL, Gilchrist DG, Bostock RM. 2003. Nuclear DNA degradation during heterokaryon incompatibility in Neurospora crassa. Fungal Genetics and Biology 40 : 126 137.
129. Medeiros PM, Fernandes MF, Dick RP, Simoneit BRT. 2006. Seasonal variations in sugar contents and microbial community in a ryegrass soil. Chemosphere 65 : 832 839.
130. Melidossian HS, Seem RC, English-Loeb G, Wilcox WF, Gadoury DM. 2005. Suppression of grapevine powdery mildew by a mycophagous mite. Plant Disease 89 : 1331 1338.
131. Mendoza-Mendoza A, Pozo MJ, Grzegorski D, Martinez P, Garcia JM, Olmedo-Monfil V, Cortes C, Kenerley C, Herrera-Estrella A. 2003. Enhanced biocontrol activity of Trichoderma through inactivation of a mitogen-activated protein kinase. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 100 : 15965 15970.
132. Minerdi D, Fani R, Gallo R, Boarino A, Bonfante P. 2001. Nitrogen fixation genes in an endosymbiotic Burkholderia strain. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 67 : 725 732.
133. Mitchell R, Alexander M. 1961. Mycolytic phenomenon and biological control of Fusarium in soil. Nature 190 : 109 110.
134. Moulin L, Munive A, Dreyfus B, Boivin-Masson C. 2001. Nodulation of legumes by members of the β-subclass of proteobacteria. Nature 411 : 948 950.
135. Mueller UG, Gerardo NM, Aanen DK, Six DL, Schultz TR. 2005. The evolution of agriculture in insects. Annual Review of Ecology Evolution and Systematics 36 : 563 595.
136. Nahalkova J, Fatehi J. 2003. Red fluorescent protein (dsred2) as a novel reporter in Fusarium oxysporum f. sp lycopersici. FEMS Microbiology Letters 225 : 305 309.
137. Neufeld JD, Dumont MG, Vohra J, Murrell JC. 2007. Methodological considerations for the use of stable isotope probing in microbial ecology. Microbial Ecology 53 : 435 442.
138. Nielsen MN, Sorensen J, Fels J, Pedersen HC. 1998. Secondary metabolite- and endochitinase-dependent antagonism toward plant-pathogenic microfungi of Pseudomonas fluorescens isolates from sugar beet rhizosphere. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 64 : 3563 3569.
139. Nielsen TH, Christophersen C, Anthoni U, Sorensen J. 1999. Viscosinamide, a new cyclic depsipeptide with surfactant and antifungal properties produced by Pseudomonas fluorescens DR54. Journal of Applied Microbiology 86 : 80 90.
140. Ninio S, Roy CR. 2007. Effector proteins translocated by Legionella pneumophila: strength in numbers. Trends in Microbiology 15 : 372 380.
141. Nischwitz C, Newcombe G, Anderson CL. 2005. Host specialization of the mycoparasite Eudarluca caricis and its evolutionary relationship to Ampelomyces. Mycological Research 109 : 421 428.
142. Nosanchuk JD, Casadevall A. 2006. Impact of melanin on microbial virulence and clinical resistance to anti-microbial compounds. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 50 : 3519 3528.
143. Partida-Martinez LP, Flores de Looss C, Ishida K, Ishida M, Roth M, Buder K, Hertweck C. 2007a. Rhizonin, the first mycotoxin isolated from the zygomycota, is not a fungal metabolite but is produced by bacterial endosymbionts. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 73 : 793 797.
144. Partida-Martinez LP, Hertweck C. 2005. Pathogenic fungus harbours endosymbiotic bacteria for toxin production. Nature 437 : 884 888.
145. Partida-Martinez LP, Monajembashi S, Greulich KO, Hertweck C. 2007b. Endosymbiont-dependent host reproduction maintains bacterial-fungal mutualism. Current Biology 17 : 773 777.
146. Peng X, Sun J, Michiels C, Iserentant D, Verachtert H. 2001. Decrease in cell surface galactose residues of Schizosaccharomyces pombe enhances its cofloculation with Pediococcus damnosus. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 67 : 3413 3417.
147. Picard K, Tirilly Y, Benhamou N. 2000. Cytological effects of cellulases in the parasitism of Phytophthora parasitica by Pythium oligandrum. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 66 : 4305 4314.
148. Pilatz S, Breitbach K, Hein N, Fehlhaber B, Schulze J, Brenneke B, Eberl L, Steinmetz I. 2006. Identification of Burkholderia pseudomallei genes required for the intracellular life cycle and in vivo virulence. Infection and Immunity 74 : 3576 3586.
149. Pizarro-Cerda J, Cossart P. 2006. Bacterial adhesion and entry into host cells. Cell 124 : 715 727.
150. Preston GM, Bertrand N, Rainey PB. 2001. Type III secretion in plant growth-promoting Pseudomonas fluorescens SBW25. Molecular Microbiology 41 : 999 1014.
151. Preston GM, Studholme D, Caldelari I. 2005. Profiling the secretomes of plant pathogenic proteobacteria. FEMS Microbiology Reviews 29 : 331 360.
152. Prusty R, Grisafi P, Fink GR. 2004. The plant hormone indoleacetic acid induces invasive growth in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 101 : 4153 4157.
153. Pukatzki S, Kessin RH, Mekalanos JJ. 2002. The human pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa utilizes conserved virulence pathways to infect the social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 99 : 3159 3164.
154. Quint M, Gray WM. 2006. Auxin signaling. Current Opinion in Plant Biology 9 : 448 453.
155. Rabin SDP, Hauser AR. 2003. Pseudomonas aeruginosa ExoU, a toxin transported by the type III secretion system, kills Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Infection and Immunity 71 : 4144 4150.
156. 2 fixation in the lichen Peltigera aphthosa Willd. Planta 151 : 256 264.
157. Rainey PB. 1991. Phenotypic variation of Pseudomonas putida and P. tolaasii affects attachment to Agaricus bisporus mycelium. Journal of General Microbiology 12 : 2769 2779.
158. Rainey PB, Brodey CL, Johnstone K. 1993. Identification of a gene cluster encoding three high-molecular-weight proteins, which is required for synthesis of tolaasin by the mushroom pathogen Pseudomonas tolaasii. Molecular Microbiology 8 : 643 652.
159. Rainey PB, Cole ALJ, Fermor TR, Wood DA. 1990. A model system for examining involvement of bacteria in basidiome initiation of Agaricus bisporus. Mycological Research 94 : 191 195.
160. Rasmussen TB, Skindersoe ME, Bjarnsholt T, Phipps RK, Christensen KB, Jensen PO, Andersen JB, Koch B, Larsen TO, Hentzer M et al. 2005. Identity and effects of quorum-sensing inhibitors produced by Penicillium species. Microbiology 151 : 1325 1340.
161. Rediers H, Rainey PB, Vanderleyden J, De Mot R. 2005. Unraveling the secret lives of bacteria: use of in vivo expression technology and differential fluorescence induction promoter traps as tools for exploring niche-specific gene expression. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews 69 : 217 261.
162. Rehm H-J. 1958. Untersuchungen uber das Verhalten von Aspergillus niger und einem Streptomyces albus Stamm in Mischkultur. Zentralbl. Bakt. Parasitenk. Abt. II 112 : 235 263.
163. Rezzonico F, Binder C, Defago G, Moenne-Loccoz Y. 2005. The type III secretion system of biocontrol Pseudomonas fluorescens KD targets the phytopathogenic chromista Pythium ultimum and promotes cucumber protection. Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions 18 : 991 1001.
164. Ribot WJ, Ulrich RL. 2006. The animal pathogen-like type III secretion
165. Richardson DHS, Cameron RP. 2004. Cyanolichens: their response to pollution and possible management strategies for their conservation in northeastern North America. The Bryologist 11 : 1 22.
166. Robertson JA, McHugh JV, Whiting MF. 2004. A molecular phylogenetic analysis of the pleasing fungus beetles (Coleoptera: Erotylidae): evolution of colour patterns, gregariousness and mycophagy. Systematic Entomology 29 : 173 187.
167. Roesti D, Ineichen K, Braissant O, Redecker D, Wiemken A, Aragno M. 2005. Bacteria associated with spores of the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi glomus geosporum and glomus constrictum. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 71 : 6673 6679.
168. Rohde JR, Breitkreutz A, Chenal A, Sansonetti PJ, Parsot C. 2007. Type III secretion effectors of the IpaH family are E3 ubiquitin ligases. Cell Host & Microbe 1 : 77 83.
169. Ruess L, Tiunov A, Haubert D, Richnow HH, Haggblom MM, Scheu S. 2005. Carbon stable isotope fractionation and trophic transfer of fatty acids in fungal based soil food chains. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 37 : 945 953.
170. Saito F, Ikeda R. 2005. Killing of Cryptococcus neoformans by Staphylococcus aureus: the role of cryptococcal capsular polysaccharide in the fungal-bacteria interaction. Medical Mycology 43 : 603 612.
171. Sato H, Feix JB, Frank DW. 2006. Identification of superoxide dismutase as a cofactor for the Pseudomonas type III toxin, ExoU. Biochemistry 45 : 10368 10375.
172. Scherlach K, Partida-Martinez LP, Dahse HM, Hertweck C. 2006. Antimitotic rhizoxin derivatives from a cultured bacterial endosymbiont of the rice pathogenic fungus Rhizopus microsporus. Journal of the American Chemical Society 128 : 11529 11536.
173. Schlumberger MC, Hardt W-D. 2006. Salmonella type III secretion effectors: pulling the host cell's strings. Current Opinion in Microbiology 9 : 46 54.
174. Schrammeijer B, Dulk-Ras Ad, Vergunst AC, Jurado Jacome, E, Hooykaas PJJ. 2003. Analysis of Vir protein translocation from Agrobacterium tumefaciens using Saccharomyces cerevisiae as a model: evidence for transport of a novel effector protein VirE3. Nucleic Acids Research 31 : 860 868.
175. Schrey SD, Schellhammer M, Ecke M, Hampp R, Tarkka MT. 2005. Mycorrhiza helper bacterium Streptomyces ach 505 induces differential gene expression in the ectomycorrhizal fungus Amanita muscaria. New Phytologist 168 : 205 216.
176. Schuessler A, Bonfante P, Schnepf E, Mollenhauer D, Kluge M. 1996. Characterization of the Geosiphon pyriforme symbiosome by affinity techniques: confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and electron microscopy. Protoplasma 190 : 53 67.
177. Schuessler A, Kluge M 2001. Geosiphon pyriformis an endosymbiosis between fungus and cyanobacteria, and its meaning as a model for arbuscular mycorrhiza research. In : Hock B, ed. The Mycota; IX Fungal Associations. New York, NY, USA : Springer, 151 161.
178. Sen R, Nurmiaho-Lassila E-L, Haahtela K, Korhonen T. 1996. Attachment of Pseudomonas fluorescens strains to the cell walls of ectomycorrhizal fungi. In : Azco'n-Aguilar C, Barea JM, ed. Mycorhizas in integrated systems from genes to plant development. EUR 16728 EN. Luxembourg : European Commission, 661 664.
179. Shiner EK, Rumbaugh KP, Williams SC. 2005. Interkingdom signaling: deciphering the language of acyl homoserine lactones. FEMS Microbiology Reviews 29 : 935 947.
180. Silliman BR, Newell SY. 2003. Fungal farming in a snail. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 100 : 15643 15648.
181. Simpson JA. 1998. Why don't more birds eat more fungi? Australasian Mycological Newsletter 17 : 67 68.
182. Singh T, Arora DK. 2001. Motility and chemotactic response of Pseudomonas fluorescens toward chemoattractants present in the exudate of Macrophomina phaseolina. Microbiological Research 156 : 343 351.
183. Singleton DR, Hunt M, Powell SN, Frontera-Suau R, Aitken MD. 2007. Stable-isotope probing with multiple growth substrates to determine substrate specificity of uncultivated bacteria. Journal of Microbiological Methods 69 : 180 187.
184. Sisko JL, Spaeth K, Kumar Y, Valdivia RH. 2006. Multifunctional analysis of Chlamydia-specific genes in a yeast expression system. Molecular Microbiology 60 : 51 66.
185. Sitkiewicz I, Stockbauer KE, Musser JM. 2007. Secreted bacterial phospholipase A2 enzymes: better living through phospholipolysis. Trends in Microbiology 15 : 63 69.
186. Siwek K, Harris AR, Scott ES. 1997. Mycoparasitism of Pythium ultimum by antagonistic binucleate rhizoctonia isolates in agar media and on capsicum seeds. Journal of Phytopathology-Phytopathologische Zeitschrift 145 : 417 423.
187. Smith-Vaughan HC, Gal D, Lawrie PM, Winstanley C, Sriprakash KS, Currie BJ. 2003. Ubiquity of putative type III secretion genes among clinical and environmental Burkholderia pseudomallei isolates in Northern Australia. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 41 : 883 885.
188. Soler-Rivas C, Jolivet S, Arpin N, Olivier JM, Wichers HJ. 1999. Biochemical and physiological aspects of brown blotch disease of Agaricus bisporus. FEMS Microbiology Reviews 23 : 591 614.
189. Someya N, Tsuchiya K, Yoshida T, Noguchi MT, Akutsu K, Sawada H. 2007. Co-inoculation of an antibiotic-producing bacterium and a lytic enzyme-producing bacterium for the biocontrol of tomato wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici. Biocontrol Science 12 : 1 6.
190. Sorensen KN, Kim KH, Takemoto JY. 1996. In vitro antifungal and fungicidal activities and erythrocyte toxicities of cyclic lipodepsinonapeptides produced by Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 40 : 2710 2713.
191. Sprague GF Jr., Winans SC. 2006. Eukaryotes learn how to count: quorum sensing by yeast. Genes and Development 20 : 1045 1049.
192. Stevens MP, Wood MW, Taylor LA, Monaghan P, Hawes P, Jones PW, Wallis TS, Galyov EE. 2002. An inv/mxi-spa-like type III protein secretion system in Burkholderia pseudomallei modulates intracellular behaviour of the pathogen. Molecular Microbiology 46 : 649 659.
193. Steyaert JM, Ridgway HJ, Elad Y, Stewart A. 2003. Genetic basis of mycoparasitism: a mechanism of biological control by species of Trichoderma. New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science 31 : 281 291.
194. Suparak S, Kespichayawattana W, Haque A, Easton A, Damnin S, Lertmemongkolchai G, Bancroft GJ, Korbsrisate S. 2005. Multinucleated giant cell formation and apoptosis in infected host cells is mediated by Burkholderia pseudomallei type III secretion protein BipB. Journal of Bacteriology 187 : 6556 6560.
195. Toljander JF, Artursson V, Paul LR, Jansson JK, Finlay RD. 2006. Attachment of different soil bacteria to arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal extraradical hyphae is determined by hyphal vitality and fungal species. FEMS Microbiology Letters 254 : 34 40.
196. Tuno N. 1999. Insect feeding on spores of a bracket fungus, Elfvingia applanata (pers.) karst. (Ganodermataceae, Aphyllophorales). Ecological Research 14 : 97 103.
197. Ulrich RL, DeShazer D. 2004. Type III secretion: a virulence factor delivery system essential for the pathogenicity of Burkholderia mallei. Infection and Immunity 72 : 1150 1154.
198. Valdivia RH. 2004. Modeling the function of bacterial virulence factors in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Eukaryotic Cell 3 : 827 834.
199. Vandenboogert P, Deacon JW. 1994. Biotrophic mycoparasitism by Verticillium biguttatum on Rhizoctonia solani. European Journal of Plant Pathology 100 : 137 156.
200. Viterbo A, Ramot O, Chernin L, Chet I. 2002. Significance of lytic enzymes from Trichoderma spp. in the biocontrol of fungal plant pathogens. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek 81 : 549 556.
201. Wang L-H, He Y, Gao Y, Wu JE, Dong Y-H, He C, Wang SX, Weng L-X, Xu J-L, Tay L et al 2004). A bacterial cell-cell communication signal with cross-kingdom structural analogues. Molecular Microbiology 51 : 903 912.
202. de Weert S, Kuiper I, Lagendijk EL, Lamers GEM, Lugtenberg BJJ. 2004. Role of chemotaxis toward fusaric acid in colonization of hyphae of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp radicis-lycopersici by Pseudomonas fluorescens WCS365. Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions 17 : 1185 1191.
203. Wells JM, Sapers GM, Fett WF, Butterfield JE, Jones JB, Bouzar H, Miller FC. 1996. Postharvest discolouration of the cultivated mushroom Agaricus bisporus caused by Pseudomonas tolaasii, P. reactans, and P. 'gingeri'. Phytopathology 86 : 1098 1104.
204. Wheeler GL, Tait K, Taylor A, Brownlee C, Joint IAN. 2006. Acyl-homoserine lactones modulate the settlement rate of zoospores of the marine alga Ulva intestinalis via a novel chemokinetic mechanism. Plant, Cell & Environment 29 : 608 618.
205. Whitfield JB. 1998. Phylogeny and evolution of host-parasitoid interactions in hymenoptera. Annual Review of Entomology 43 : 129 151.
206. Winkelmann G. 2007. Ecology of siderophores with special reference to the fungi. Biometals 20 : 379 392.
207. Woo S, Fogliano V, Scala F, Lorito M. 2002. Synergism between fungal enzymes and bacterial antibiotics may enhance biocontrol. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 81 : 353 356.
208. Woo SL, Donzelli B, Scala F, Mach R, Harman GE, Kubicek CP, Del Sorbo G, Lorito M. 1999. Disruption of the ech42 (endochitinase-encoding) gene affects biocontrol activity in Trichoderma harzianum p1. Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions 12 : 419 429.
209. Yang S, Zhang Q, Guo J, Charkowski AO, Glick BR, Ibekwe AM, Cooksey DA, Yang C-H. 2007. Global effect of indole-3-acetic acid biosynthesis on multiple virulence factors of Erwinia chrysanthemi 3937. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 73 : 1079 1088.
210. Yara R, Maccheroni W, Horii J, Azevedo JL. 2006. A bacterium belonging to the Burkholderia cepacia complex associated with Pleurotus ostreatus. Journal of Microbiology 44 : 263 268.
211. Zeilinger S, Galhaup C, Payer K, Woo SL, Mach RL, Fekete C, Lorito M, Kubicek CP. 1999. Chitinase gene expression during mycoparasitic interaction of Trichoderma harzianum with its host. Fungal Genetics and Biology 26 : 131 140.
212. Zhang Z, Yuen GY. 2000. The role of chitinase production by Stenotrophomonas maltophilia strain C3 in biological control of Bipolaris sorokiniana. Phytopathology 90 : 384 389.